Port characteristic and their elements , port capacity and types of carriers

WELCOME TO LECTURE-1
Academic Year 2023-24, Semester: IV
CMT-623: Airport and Port Infrastructure
Overview
Total Lectures: 30 Course Credits: 2
PRESENTED BY
Dr. C. S. Gokhale
Professor, SOE, NICMAR, Pune
1

COURSE OBJECTIVE
The course provides students, the understanding of planning and
design of sea ports and airports development.
It also covers the construction techniques and management aspects
of ports and airports infrastructure facilities
2

COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of course, student will be able to:
(1) Identify the various ownership models in port and airport
business.
(2) Differentiate the port and airport infrastructure facilities.
(3) Assess the port and airport infrastructure facilities
(4) Judge and select suitable construction technique for the given
site condition and project type
(5) Value the importance of infrastructural developments in the
GDP growth
3

COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT I: Port Planning Process (8L)
Maritime transportation, ship types and characteristics, components of ports,
harbour types, Ocean parameters and its impacts on marine structures, port
development objectives, Institutional framework, port ownership models, cargo
types and handling equipment, port demand analysis, port hinterland, cargo
demand analysis and forecasting, port capacity evaluation, Examination of berth
requirements and storage are for phase wise development and for master plan,
Design principles of harbour basin and navigation channels
UNIT II: Construction and Management of Port Infrastructure (7L)
Seafloor and marine soils, classification and distribution, significance in
construction, geotechnical investigations, capital and maintenance dredging of
harbours, construction of breakwaters, berthing structures and jetties, types of
fenders and its installation, mooring systems
UNIT III: Airport Planning and Design Principles
UNIT IV: Construction and Management of Airports and Airport supporting
Structures
4

Pedagogy for Course Delivery
Learning outcomes includes theoretical lectures supported by
industry case studies.
Student assignments would include individual and group
submissions with focus on presentation.
A term project will be given to the students at the end of the course
and students need to demonstrate their acquired knowledge and skill
in solving the real time problems
5

Reading List-Recommended
T1 Dock and Harbour Engg. Oza and Oza, Charotar Publishers,
T2 Dock and Harbour and Tunnel Engineering, Rangwala , Khanna
Publishers,
T3 Harbour and Coastal Engineering, Narasimhan S., Kathiroli S. and
Kumar B. N., NIOT, Chennai,
T4 Marine Geotechnics, Poulos H. G., UNWIN HYMAN, London
T5 Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals, Ed. Hans
Agerschou, Thomos Telford, London
T6 Port Engineering, Ed. Gregory P. Tsinker, Join Wiley & Sons,
T7 Maritime India Mission-2030, Ministry Shipping, Govt. of India
T8 Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures, Ben C. Gerwick, CRC
Press, London
6

ASSESSMENT
TOTAL MARKS: 100 (60+40)
Term End Examination 60 Marks (30+30)
Continuous Assessment 40 Marks (20+20)
Presentations 10
Quiz 10
7

SESSION PLAN
L-1: Overview
L-2: Elements of Port
L-3 Marine Transportation
L-4 Ship and Cargo Characteristics
L-5: Port Planning & Development
L-6: Cargo demand analysis and forecasting
L-7: Port capacity evaluation
L-8 Environmental Aspects of Marine Construction
L-9: Seafloor and Marine Soils
L-10: Berthing Structures
L-11: Construction of Jetty
L-12: Fenders and Mooring Systems
L-13: Dredging of Harbours
L-14: Breakwaters-Rubble Mound
L-15: Breakwaters-Vertical Wall Type
8

OVERVIEW
India comprises a significant size maritime sector with 12 Major and
200+ Non-Major Ports situated along its 7500 km long coastline and
a vast network of navigable waterways.
The country’s maritime sector plays a crucial role in its overall trade
and growth, with 95% of the country’s trade volume and 65% of the
trade value being undertaken through maritime transport.
Two Indian Ports, JNPT (#33) and Mundra (#37) have the distinction
of featuring in the list of top 40 global container ports. India
augmented its capacity by over 65% across all Major Ports in the last
5 years. Of the total cargo handled at Indian Ports, over 54% is
handled at the country’s 12 Major Ports.
9

OVERVIEW
Inland Water Transport
India has increased the modal share of cargo from 0.5% to 2% and
has witnessed 19% year-on-year growth in cargo volumes over the
last 5 years. India has over 5,000 km of navigable inland waterways
under development.
Ship Breaking and Recycling
Globally, India ranks 2nd in ship recycling and 21st in ship building.
India is ranked amongst the top 5 countries supplying trained
manpower, with 17% growth in seafarers in the last 3 years.
10

OVERVIEW
Maritime India Vision-2030
(Ministry of Port, Shipping and Waterways, Govt. of India)
MIV 2030 outlines 10 key themes which are essential for India to secure its
place at the forefront of the Global Maritime Sector:
1. Develop best-in-class Port infra structure
Total traffic handled at Indian Ports rose from885 MTPA in 2010-11 to
1300 MTPA in 2019-20.The 12 Major Indian Ports handled nearly 54
percent of the total cargo in 2019-20 and have witnessed just about -4 %
CAGR growth in overall cargo traffic over last 5 years. Given the evolving
global shipping market and 10-year traffic projections across commodities
and regional clusters, India needs to upgrade its port infrastructure to
increase its market share. MIV 2030 has identified key interventions across
4 areas: brownfield capacity augmentation; developing world-class Mega
Ports; development of transshipment hub in Southern India; and
infrastructure modernization.
11

OVERVIEW
Maritime India Vision-2030 key themes
2. Drive E2E Logistics Efficiency and Cost Competitiveness
The overall logistics cost in India is higher than best-in-class benchmarks,
primarily as a result of larger hinterland distances and higher unit costs.
Port land industrialization, a means to bring industries closer to ports has
started gaining traction with port based SEZ developed at JNPT and efforts
across other ports. Sagarmala has outlined 200+ port connectivity projects
to improve access to ports via road, rail, coastal & inland routes.
To be globally competitive, the India Ports must drive mechanization and
adoption of technology to improve productivity and establish ancillary
services (e.g. PGA nodal offices) within port premises to improve
evacuation time.
Report outlines key interventions such as operational efficiency
improvement, better evacuation, cost reduction, coastal shipping promotion
and port land industrialization to drive competitiveness and efficiency.
12

OVERVIEW
3. Enhance Logistics Efficiency throughTechnology and Innovation
With an aim to achieve ~5% share in world exports, India’s exports need to
grow aggressively in next 5 to 10 years and it is imperative for Indian Ports
to strengthen maritime capabilities and improve Ease of Doing Business
(EoDB). Key interventions identified to enhance efficiency include creation
of a National Logistics Portal (Marine), functional processes digitalization
across maritime stakeholders, Digital-led smart ports, and system-driven
port performance monitoring
4. Strengthen Policy and Institutional Framework to Support all Stakeholders
MIV 2030 has identified key interventions for improving governance
mechanisms, amendments in existing legislatures, strengthening MCA, and
promoting PPP, fiscal support, and financial resilience to enable overall
sustainable growth of the sector.
13

OVERVIEW
5. Enhance Global Share in Ship Building, Repair and Recycling
Global downturn and rising competition have resulted in pressures on
Indian ship building industry leading to a decline in its global share to <1%.
While India is one of the market leaders in ship recycling, ship repairs is a
very nascent market.
MIV 2030 has identified domestic demand channelization for ship building;
development of common platforms for ancillary and marine design
ecosystem; creation of ship repair clusters; and, promoting waste to wealth
through increased scrap usage in Steel industry as key interventions to
enhance the country’s market share.
14

OVERVIEW
6. Enhance Cargo and Passenger Movement through Inland Waterways
India’s modal share of freight moved on inland waterways has significant
potential to improve compared to other best in class benchmarks. It is
imperative to increase share of the country’s inland waterways as they are
highly economical and an eco-friendly mode of transport.
Key interventions identified to enhance passenger and cargo movement
include terminal infrastructure and fairway development; fiscal and
regulatory policies to encourage IW vessel operators and cargo owners; and
promotion of Ro-Ro and ferry services in India.
15

OVERVIEW
7. Promote Ocean, Coastal and River Cruise Sector
The Indian cruise industry, though in its nascent stage, is growing at over -
35% due to multiple government interventions in the last 3 years. With
global ocean cruise industry highly concentrated (80%+ share with top 3
players), attractive and stable policy framework is critical to attract global
players to India.
Over the next decade, the Indian cruise market has the potential to increase
by 8X driven by rising demand and disposable incomes. However, to do so,
India will have to focus on the development of infrastructure to unlock
demand. Optimized development and phasing strategy are necessary for
development of this sector. Key interventions identified for development of
cruise sector include terminal infrastructure development; theme-based
coastal and island circuits; cruise training academies; island ecosystem
development; and operationalization of ferry and river cruise terminals on
National Waterways.
16

OVERVIEW
8. Enhance India’s Global stature and Maritime Co-operation
India’s trade with the BIMSTEC nations has grown at an annual rate of
10%+. However, the geographical proximity and maritime connectivity
offer an even higher potential for collaboration.
With India being the largest BIMSTEC economy, the country needs to take
a leadership position to drive cooperation and collaboration among the
nations.
While multiple efforts are being undertaken to develop and strengthen
connectivity (ferry, cruise, cargo) with neighbouring countries such as
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, additional areas can be explored to
further bolster maritime cooperation like strengthening permanent
representation at I MO, common standards, and promoting “ Resolve in
India”. Also, concerted efforts to drive collaboration with advanced
maritime countries (such as the UK, US, Netherlands, etc.) are required.
17

OVERVIEW
9. Lead the World in Safe, Sustainable & Green Maritime Sector
India has set a target to achieve 40% national energy through renewable
sources by 2030. Indian Ports need to be in adherence with International
Marine Organization’s alignment to 9 UN SDG which includes obligations
on safe, efficient and sustainable ports.
To reduce environmental pollution, Indian ports have started multiple
initiatives such as driving solar and wind energy adoption, Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan, Swachh Sagar portal for waste management, etc. Also, to ensure
safe work environment,
Indian ports are striving to introduce multiple safety measures to prevent
accidents/ incidents In order to be in line with best in class practices,
MIV 2030 has identified key interventions like increasing usage of
renewable energy, reducing air emissions, optimizing water usage,
improving solid waste management, Zero accident safety program, and
centralized monitoring system identified to further bolster India towards
leading the world in Safe, Sustainable and Green ports.
18

OVERVIEW
.
10. Become Top Seafaring Nation withWorld Class Education, Research &
Training
India currently contributes to 10-12% of world seafarers but is facing rising
competition from other countries in South East Asia such as Philippines.
Key interventions have been identified for promoting Research &
innovation, enhancement of Education & Training, development of
conducive ecosystem for seafarers and port led capability development.
19

OVERVIEW
.
20

OVERVIEW
Impact of Maritime India Vision – 2030
• MIV 2030 envisions an overall investment of INR 3,00,000-
3,50,000 Cr across ports, shipping, and inland waterways
categories.
• This vision roadmap is estimated to help unlock INR 20,000+ Cr
worth of potential annual revenue for Indian Ports.
• Further, it is expected to create an additional -20,00,000+ jobs
(direct and non-direct) in the Indian maritime sector.
21

OVERVIEW
Develop Best-in-classPort Infrastructure
At present India has 12 Major Ports and 205 notified Non-Major Ports
along its 7,500 km long coastline and sea-islands1. The ports are critical
economic and service provision units.
The total traffic handled at Indian Ports has risen steadily from 885 MTPA
in 2010-11 to 1307 MTPA in 2019-201. India’s Major Ports have witnessed
4% CAGR growth over the last 5 years and handled approx. 54% of the
country’s total cargo in 2019-20. In 2019-20, approx. 25% of Indian cargo
transhipment was handled by Indian Ports and rest by
International ports leading to lost revenue opportunities for India and a
higher risk of trade dependence. Enabling a Transshipment hub in India
will not only address the current revenue losses for Major ports but also
help take advantage of an attractive position on global maritime routes.
.
22

OVERVIEW
Develop Best-in-class Port Infrastructure
Globally, seven of the top 10 ports in the world today (by container
throughput) are Chinese ports. Two Indian Ports (JNPT at 33, Mundra at
37) appear within top 402 ports category. There is a significant potential to
develop port infrastructure in India and become competitive with other
leading maritime nations such as US, China and other South-East Asian
regions.
The Vizhinjam port along Kerala's scenic coastline has been developed by
Adani Ports and SEZ Ltd. in collaboration with the local state government.
Adani Group holds a 51 per cent stake in the West Container Terminal
(WCT) of the port, which also has a terminal run by China Merchants Port
Holdings. Sri Lankan conglomerate John Keells Holdings owns 34 per cent
of the WCT and the rest is held by state-run Sri Lanka Ports Authority
(SLPA). USA is investing 550 million in WCT.
23

OVERVIEW
The shipping industry is moving towards mega- size vessels, with
more than 40% of the order book in next 3-5 years accounted by
ships of size 20,000 TEU and above. (1 TEU is 5.9 m Length, 2.35 m
width and 2.39 m height) as length is 20 feet is is referred as 20 feet
equivalent that is 1 TEU
While a Capsize vessel requires 18m+ draft, draft at Indian ports
varies widely from 7m to 20m. Hence, Indian ports need to focus on
increasing draft availability according to their respective cargo
profile.
Considering the evolving shipping market, ship sizes, and cargo
profile, it is essential for the Indian Ports to further strengthen port
infrastructure and drive a greater share of global EXIM trade.
Infrastructure is planning to be driven by careful analysis of cargo
trends and forecasts.
24

OVERVIEW
.
25

Port Elements
PRESENTED BY
Dr. C. S. Gokhale
1

PORT ELEMENTS
Coastal Structures
*Coastal structures are characterized by a turbulent
surf zone, local long shore currents.
* Coastal structures are shallow hence preventing or at
least limiting the use of floating equipment.
*The soils are typically unstable deposits of sand and
gravel, which may be seasonal in nature, piling up on a
beach in summer and migrating to form an offshore bar in
winter.
*Fig. 1 shows typical coastal zone
2

PORT ELEMENTS
Fig. 1 Typical coastal zone
3

PORT ELEMENTS
Harbours
*Harbour is meant for ships and port is planned and
equipped to handle ship cargo.
*As ships have increased in size and also have become far
more expensive, the harbour planning and the port equipments
should aim at most expeditors handling of cargo.
*Shipping has enormously expanded and harbours and ports
have correspondingly gained prominent importance in
development process.
*Before we enter the process of construction of Docks, Jetties,
Fender Systems let us revise some terms associated with
coastal structures.
4

PORT ELEMENTS
Harbours
*A harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of sea in which
vessels could launched, built or taken for repair; or could seek
refuse in time of storm; or provide facilities for loading and
unloading of cargo and passengers.
*Main function of a harbour is to provide safe and suitable
accommodation for vessels seeking refuge, supplies, refueling,
repairs or the transfer of cargo and passengers.
*In olden days natural formations affording safe discharge
facilities for ships on sea coasts, in the form of creeks and basins
called natural harbours were used.
*As the size and draft of present day vessels went on increasing
to with development it necessitated the works of extension and
improvement for natural harbours, creation of semi-natural
and artificial harbours.
5

PORT ELEMENTS
*The constituents of a harbour can be enlisted as follows:
(1) Entrance Channel
(2) Approach Channel
(3) Turning Basin (to facilitate gradual turning of the ship)
(4) Berthing Basin
(5) Breakwaters
(6) Berthing Structures: Quays, Wharves, Jetties and Piers,
(7) Docks
(8) Slipways and
(9) Utility/ancillaries facilities such as Godowns, Sheds, Buoys,
Lights, Fire Protection Towers, etc.
Fig. 2, 3 and 4 shows Mormugoa Harbour, Madras Harbour and
Paradip harbour
6

PORT ELEMENTS
*
Fig. 2: Mormugao Harbour
7

PORT ELEMENTS
*
Fig. 3: Madras Harbour
8

PORT ELEMENTS
*
Fig. 4: Paradip Harbour
9

PORT ELEMENTS
*The term port is used to indicate a harbour where terminal
facilities such as stores, landing of passengers and cargo,
etc. are added to it.
*Thus, a harbour consists of the waterways and channels as
far as the pier-head lines and a port includes everything on
the landward side of those lines, i.e., piers, slips, wharves,
sheds, tracks, handling equipment, etc.
*Such a distinction helps in marking the line of jurisdiction
between the State Govt. and Central Govt.
*The port is under the State Govt. and the harbour is under
the Central Govt. In general, it can be stated that a port
includes a harbour or in other words, every port is a
harbour but the reverse is not true.
10

PORT ELEMENTS
Classification of ports
*Depending upon the location, the ports can be classified as
Canal Ports, River Ports and Sea Ports.
*The term free port is used to indicate an isolated and policed
area for handling of cargo, etc. for the purpose of reshipping
without the intervention of customs (SEZ’s).
*Depending upon the commodities dealt with or their use,
the ports can also be classified as grain ports, coal ports,
transshipment ports, etc.
*Depending-upon the size and location, the ports can also be
grouped as major ports and minor ports. A major port is
able to attract large trade and high material handling capacity.
It commands a really pivoted position for development of
region.
11

PORT ELEMENTS
Harbour Entrance
*The entrance to a harbour is usually more exposed to waves
as compared to the harbour itself. Due to this, depth and width
required at the entrance are more than those required in the
channel.
*The width of entrance depends upon density of traffic and
number of entrances, besides the navigational requirements
and the degree of protection the channel has and what is
desired within the harbour.
*The entrance should be wide enough for navigational
requirements and so as to avoid dangerous tidal currents.
However it should not, however, be too wide to increase
wave height within harbour.
12

PORT ELEMENTS
Harbour Entrance
*
13

PORT ELEMENTS
Approach Channel
*Generally the depth of water naturally available in the entire
harbour area is not sufficient for navigation of designated vessels.
*When such condition is not available naturally, a channel with
sufficient depth and width is dredged to provide for a passage of
ships between the harbour entrance and the docks and is called
approach channel.
14

PORT ELEMENTS
Turning Basin
*The area required for maneuvering the ship when it goes to or
leaves the berth, so that a ship can leave head-on.
*The size of the turning basin primarily depends on the designed
vessel. It should preferably be designed to have a ship turn under
continuous headway without help of a tug.
Sheltered Basin
*It is the area protected by shore and breakwaters.
*In this basin are located other elements of harbour including area
for anchorage of vessels
15

PORT ELEMENTS
Breakwaters
*The protective barrier constructed to enclose harbours and to
keep the harbour water undisturbed by the effect of heavy and
strong seas are called breakwaters.
*The main function of a breakwater, is to protect the enclosed
area of water from storm waves.
*Thus a breakwater helps in achieving calm water conditiond in
the harbour and thereby contribute to the safety of the vessel
within and its easy working.
16

PORT ELEMENTS
Breakwaters in Goa
18

PORT ELEMENTS
Lock and Locked Basin
*Locked basin is an enclosed basin wherein a number of vessels
can be berthed and has an entrance which is controlled by lock
gate(s).
*The water within locked basin can be independent of outside
water level changes.
19

PORT ELEMENTS
Docks; Dry Docks and Slipways
*Docks are enclosed areas for berthing ships, to keep them afloat
at a uniform level, to facilitate loading and unloading cargo.
*These are also provided for maintenance, repairs and construction
of ships. Such dry docks are referred as Maintenance Docks or
Building Docks. They can be kept dry for easy working.
*Dry dock has a gate in the entrance which is closed after taking
the vessel in and the water is pumped out to render it dry.
20

PORT ELEMENTS
*The berating structures are constructed for berthing and
mooring of vessels to enable loading and unloading of cargo and
for embarking of passengers.
*The common types of berthing structures are listed below.
(a) Wharf (closed and open)
(b) Quay
(c) Pier
(d) jetty
21

PORT ELEMENTS
Pier-Head
*The monolithic structure usually provided at the tip of the
breakwater is called the pier-head.
Wharves and Quays
*These are usually constructed parallel to shore or breakwater within
the harbour and are meant to permit berthing of vessel alongside for
cargo working. They have backfill of earth or other material and
have wide platform at top.
Jetties and Piers
*These are solid or open type of structures with a wide platform on
top to permit cargo working of vessels berthed alongside.
*They are built out from the shore to reduce silting and dredging,
permitting free flow of tidal currents.
22

PORT ELEMENTS
Ancillary Structures/Facilities
*In addition to main berthing structure various other supporting
structures termed as ancillary structures/facilities are required for
smooth Harbour/port operations. Some of these ancillaries are listed
below.
(a) Moorings
(b ) Anchors
(c) Buoys
(d) Lighting System
(e) Transit Sheds
(f) Warehouses
(g) Fire Protection Towers and Systems
(h) Other service units as may be necessary
*These are planned and constructed/installed at different locations in
the harbour and port complex.
23

Maritime Transportation
PRESENTED BY
Dr. C. S. Gokhale
1

• Shipping has always been a key player in global logistics. In recent
years there has been an increase in demand for the use of Maritime
Transport, probably due to the advent of new technologies and e-
commerce. Shipping has become an ideal choice to meet these new
needs.
• According to recent data, it has been estimated that shipping
accounts for 80% to 90% of international logistics. These are very
relevant numbers to get an idea of the importance of this type of
transportation.
• The concept is not very complex; maritime transport is a term that
designates large cargoes transported by cargo ships.
• Starting in the 1960s, shipping began to use containers, facilitating
the transport of large cargoes, reducing the cost of storage and
product monitoring.
• With all this, maritime logistics has become one of the main options
for the transport of goods.
• Let’s delve a little deeper into the special characteristics of maritime
transport that make it so relevant in today’s international logistics.
2

Characteristics of maritime transport
• A maritime transport is a very important part of international
logistics. This is not a random fact; it is due, above all, to the
attractive characteristics that define it. The main characteristics of
maritime transport:
• Large capacity. The vessels stand out for their high tonnage
capacity, which is very difficult to match for other types of transport.
This high capacity is one of the great assets of maritime logistics.
• International transportation. Ocean freight is capable of
transporting large quantities internationally at a lower cost.
• Versatile transport. Maritime logistics enjoys great versatility; there
are vessels of many different types, capable of adapting to any type
of cargo.
• Competition. Despite some cases, maritime transport is governed by
the principle of free competition, so there is a wide range of supply.
• These characteristics mark the attractiveness of this type of logistics
capable of adapting to any business and needs.
3

• The Indian economy occupies a commercially enviable location on
the global map, straddling Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean, and Arabian
Sea with a coastline of approximately 7,517 km. Ports in India
handle 90% by volume and 70% by value of India’s external trade.
• The maritime route is used to import crude petroleum, iron ore, coal,
and other critical goods. India also has an extensive network of
inland waterways in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters, and
creeks. The total length of national waterways is 20,275 km spread
across 24 States in the country.
• The Indian Ocean encompasses about one-fifth of the world’s sea
area and supports 80% of global maritime oil trade. India’s central
and strategic location in the Indian Ocean region provides an
advantage to capitalize on the same as India’s maritime trade
increases.
4

Segmental breakup of logistics market in India, fiscal 2022
• According to the Chief Economic Advisor, India is poised to become a 5
trillion-dollar economy and ports would play a significant role growth
story.
5

• The Indian government plays a key support role in the development
of the port industry. It has opened up the automated route to 100%
FDI for port and harbour building and maintenance projects.
• It has also made it easier for businesses that create, maintain, and
operate ports, inland waterways, and inland ports to take advantage
of a 10-year tax break.
• The Indian port sector is divided into two segments: major ports and
non-major ports. As on March 2021, the Indian coastline is dotted
with 12 major and nearly 212 non-major ports.
• Major ports are administered directly by central government,
whereas non-major ports fall under the jurisdiction of state
governments.
6

Overview of Major ports
• The Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 provides for regulation,
operation and planning of major Ports in India. The Act revises the
provisions of earlier act and vests the administration, control and
management of such ports to the boards of major port authorities.
• The legislation empowers these ports to perform with greater
efficiency on account of increased autonomy in decision making and
by modernizing their institutional framework.
• These port authorities are empowered to fix scale of rates for port
services and assets. PPP concessionaires are free to fix tariffs based
on market conditions etc. This aspect was earlier governed by Tariff
Authority for Major Ports (TAMP), which significantly impacted the
autonomy of the concessionaires. 7

Overview of Major ports
• The compact board with professional independent members also aids in
decision-making and strategic planning.
• Major ports derive almost entire revenues from Port related activities,
which comprises of Port services as well as Royalty and revenue shares
received from Terminal Operators.
• Consumption patterns in the hinterland have a considerable bearing on the
type of cargo handled at Ports. For instance, industrial hinterlands of
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
and mineral rich belts of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha manage large
volumes of cargo from coastal areas and the broader hinterland. Ports in
vicinity of refineries such as Cochin, Kandla, Mumbai, and Mangalore
have a significant chunk of POL (Petroleum Oil and Lubricants) traffic,
whereas ports close to mines such as Paradip and Mormugao get a large
chunk of their traffic from Coal and Iron Ore mines. 2022
8

Details of Major Indian ports
9

Key entry barriers for a port
• The maritime infrastructure industry is capital intensive with long
gestation periods and significant regulatory requirements. Ports in
India also require substantial investments in evacuation infrastructure
and skilled resources to operate the port.
(1) Capital requirement: Greenfield port development is highly
capital intensive, with investments required for breakwater, capital
dredging and connectivity projects. Even the brownfield
development requires sizeable investment. As per CRISIL MI&A, Rs
10 – 15 billion is required for developing a container terminal with a
one million TEU capacity.
(2) Regulatory requirements: Regulatory requirements such as
technical experience and financial circumstances and capabilities act
as entry barriers for new players to enter this industry. 10

Key entry barriers for a port
(3) Long gestation periods: The port projects have long gestation
period, starting from project award, concession agreement, marine
infrastructure development and connectivity infrastructure. The
timelines are particularly longer for greenfield projects, running more
than five years at least. Post development of port infrastructure also,
hinterland connectivity is key for volume ramp-up.
(4) Limited players: Limited players dominate the port operator
business, as port cargo handling requires expertise. High efficiency
in cargo handling is essential for ensuring optimum utilisation of the
infrastructure at the port. The sector has seen small number of new
industry entrants in recent years.
11

Key success factors for a port
(1) Infrastructure of the port: Sound infrastructure is fundamental to
success of a port. Ports equipped with modern infrastructure facilities
such as cranes, deeper draft etc attract higher traffic. Such facilities
also ensure quicker loading/unloading of cargo thereby resulting in
improved operational performance of a port. For instance, ports
equipped with newer, technologically advanced cranes are able to do
more moves per hour, thus reducing turnaround time. Further, ports
with adequate draft will be able to receive larger vessels.
(2) Allied/Support infrastructure: Ports with sound support
infrastructure will ensure quicker evacuation of cargo, thereby easing
congestion at the port. Less congestion at the port translates into
improved operational performance. 12

Conveyor connectivity to the industry such as in Mundra,
Krishnapatnam, Gangavaram, Jaigarh etc. and coastal movement
adds to the traffic at the port. Availability of CFS eases congestion at
the port and enables it to handle higher traffic. Further, ports well
connected by rail and roadways enjoy higher traffic. Poor rail and
road connectivity leading to the port will result in traffic diversion to
other ports, as it increases logistic costs of the customers.
(3) Port-based industries/hinterland: A port will only be viable if it
can get business from importers and exporters. Ports are dependent
on the industries around the port, which form primary hinterland for
cargo. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) and other port-based
industries ensure throughput for a port. 13

Besides, other industries reliant on the port for export/import form
the secondary hinterland for a port. In other words, a port located
close to an industrial belt or agricultural region will attract higher
traffic.
(4) Location of the port: Location is a major differentiator in the
ports industry. Ports which are closer to major shipping routes enjoy
competitive advantage because shipping from those ports translates
into cost savings for the importers and exporters.
(5) Productivity of port labour: Productivity of port labour is a key
determinant of operational performance of a port. Increasing
digitization and sophistication of ports demand skilled labour to
achieve optimum port productivity.
14

Higher port labour productivity leads to quicker turnaround time and
higher output per ship-berth day. Skilled resources/personnel are also
key success factors for a port.
(6) Diversification: Ports that diversify by having facilities to handle
more than one type of cargo can insure themselves against fall in
shipments of a particular type of cargo. Ports that have a diversified
cargo mix are better positioned to weather slowdown and would also
help in attracting marquee large shipping lines due to cargo
flexibility.
15

Key risks for a port
(1) Slowdown in global economy (export/import): The performance
of a port is heavily dependent on the global economic scenario.
Slowdown in the global economy would imply slowdown in business
for a port.
(2) Competition from other ports: With about 212 non-major ports
and 12 major ports, the competition among ports has increased
significantly. Major ports, which once handled majority of traffic,
have seen their share in total traffic shrink considerably. Poor
operational performance of major ports and aggressive expansion
undertaken by non-major ports has resulted in traffic being diverted
to non-major ports. For instance, poor operational performance on
account of increased congestion at JNPT port a few years ago led to
incremental traffic being diverted to Mundra port and Pipavav port.
16

(3) Changes in government regulations: Restrictions imposed by the
government on export and import of goods can significantly hamper
the operations of a port. Increase in export/import duties, constraints
on import/export of a particular commodity etc. act as a deterrent for
a port. For instance, ports in Karnataka, Goa and Orissa are currently
at the receiving end since the government has imposed a ban on
export of iron ore.
(4) Environmental concerns: Environmental concerns such as harm
to marine ecology, environment on account of port operations can put
the port operations in jeopardy. This was seen in the case of Chennai
port which was directed by the Chennai High Court to stop handling
coal and iron ore cargoes due to the pollution it caused. 17

(5) Natural forces: This is a risk outside the control of a port. For
instance, cyclone Gaja and Titli which hit the ports on the eastern
coast of India in 2018 not only stalled the operations at these ports
but also inflicted a huge cost on these ports in terms of dredging
costs, wreckage of machinery, etc.
(6) Changes in vessel technology: Over the years, there has been a
paradigm shift in vessels used for transportation of goods, especially
in terms of technology, design and size. Ports which do not keep pace
with changing times, are impacted by a loss in throughput. For
instance, in order to achieve economies of scale, the size of the
vessels used for shipment of cargo has increased over the years.
However, most ports do not have the draft to accommodate vessels of
such size 18

Trends of privatization of terminals at major ports
• The assets considered for privatization from FY2022 to 2025 are
spread across 9 of the 12 major ports. Towards this, 31 projects have
been identified for private sector participation for improved
operational efficiency and capacity utilization of existing port assets.
• The total estimated capex towards 31 identified projects considered
for monetization is estimated at Rs 14,483 crore for FY 2022-25. Out
of 31 projects, 13 projects with expected capex of Rs. 6,924 crores
were approved by the government.
• As per public information bureau, 7 projects of Rs 5,278 crore have
already been awarded and others are in various stages of bidding by
end of FY22. 19

• According to the National Monetization Pipeline, another 10 projects
with expected capex of Rs. 4,680 crores are envisaged to be tendered
out in FY 2023.
• However, the actual investment towards the development of assets
will be phased out over a defined time period as laid out under the
contract. Since the same could not be determined, the actual
investment has been assumed to be phased out over 3-year period
from the target year of award.
• Hence, during the National Monetization Pipeline (NMP) period of
FY22-25, monetization value of Rs. 12,828 crores has been
considered on account of estimated capex towards identified 31
projects.
20

21

Port traffic
• As per CRISIL MI&A estimates, port traffic is expected to grow by
8-9% in fiscal 2023, after growing by 4.9% in fiscal 2022. The
growth in fiscal 2022 was aided by the low base of fiscal 2021 when
port traffic plummeted due to lockdowns on account of the
coronavirus spread in India (and globally) and the subsequent
economic slowdown. Furthermore, as there was a revival in
economic activity, demand as well as consumption of major
commodities went up which also boosted traffic growth.
• In fiscal 2023, coal and POL (petroleum, oil and lubricants) segments
are expected to drive the growth in port traffic on the back of higher
domestic demand for the commodities due to increased fuel
requirements in the country. Coal traffic is expected to see a growth
of 25-28% in fiscal 2023 while POL traffic is likely to be higher by
4-7%. 22

Port traffic
• On the other hand, container traffic is expected to be sluggish due to
macroeconomic headwinds whereas iron ore traffic is likely to see a
subdued growth on account of lower exports. Both container traffic
and iron ore traffic both expected to grow at a sedate 2-5% in fiscal
2023.
• In fiscal 2024, the growth in port traffic is expected to moderate to 3-
6%. After a subdued fiscal 2023, iron ore traffic is expected to
witness a sharp rise of 6-9% in fiscal 2024. Similarly, container
traffic is also expected to be slightly higher at 3-6%. Contrastingly,
the growth in POL traffic would be subdued at 2-5% while coal
traffic is likely to remain flattish due to lesser imports.
23

Port traffic
• Over fiscals 2024-2028, growth at Indian ports is expected to be at 3-
6%. However factors such as tapering growth in coal due to import
substitution along with plateauing of iron ore exports and muted
growth in POL segment led by slower consumption in crude oil are
expected to moderate cargo traffic over long term.
• Share of Major ports has been reducing as non-major ports are able
to provide better efficiencies and lower turnaround time (TAT) with
competitive rates. Over the next 5 years, CRISIL MI&A expects non-
Major ports to grow at a pace similar to Major ports due to a fall in
imports & slight growth in coastal traffic.
24

Overall traffic at Indian ports
25

Cargo handled at Indian ports in FY22 and FY28F (in million tonnes)
26

Traffic at Major Ports
27

East coast vs. West coast ports (Million tonnes)
28

Coastal vs overseas cargo
29

Overseas Cargo at Major Ports vs. Minor Ports (Million tonnes)
30

Coastal cargo at major ports vs. minor ports (Million tonnes)
31

Coastal shipping is a cheaper and environment-friendly mode
• As per a Press Information Bureau (PIB) release, pre-tax freight rates
for road and rail are Rs 2.50 per tonne km and Rs 1.36 per tonne km,
respectively. Moving raw materials and finished products using
coastal shipping and inland waterways is 60-80% cheaper than road
or rail transport. As a thumb rule, road is cost-competitive for 250-
300 km, railways for 250-800 km, and ocean transportation is
cheapest for distances greater than 800 km.
• Besides being cheaper, sea-based transportation is the most
environment-friendly among surface transportation modes. As per a
2013 National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC)
report, carbon dioxide emissions for road were 59 grams per tonne
km, followed by rail at 21 grams per tonne km. Shipping contributes
the lowest in carbon dioxide emissions at 10 grams per tonne km.
32

Outlook of key commodities
33

Indian Ports Sector – Institutional Framework
34

Indian Ports Sector – Legislative Framework
35

Key port/Terminal Operators in India
#- Calculated by considering ratio of 1TEU=15 tonnes * For PSA International, Net Sales number is presented in
the above table
Note: MT: Million tonnes, MTEU: Million TEU; NA- Not available Source: Annual reports, Investor
presentations, CRISIL MI&A 36

Ship and Cargo Characteristics
PRESENTED BY
Dr. C. S. Gokhale
1

Marine Transportation and Ship Type
Shipping Terminology
* Shipping has its phraseology which the port and harbour engineer
has to know. Otherwise, it creates confusion amongst non-maritime
persons. The size of a ship is given in terms of its gross registered
tonnage, which is actually a measurement of internal space. The
word tonnage, thus, misleads those who are not acquainted with the
shipping terminology.
(1) Gross Registered Tonnage: usually designated GRT, is the total
measured internal cubic capacity of a ship expressed in units of 2.83
cu. m. (or 100 c. ft.). In 1967 the Tonnage Rule were completely
revised in an attempt to improve the safety of ships. But, a registered
ton, representing 100 cubic feet of volume was not changed even
with the introduction of SI units.
2

(2) Net Tonnage: also called Net Registered Tonnage, and designated
NRT, is the carrying capacity of a ship expressed in units of 2.83 cu.
m. (or 100 cft.). It is ascertained according to Government
regulations and is the space intended for revenue earning. It is
arrived at by deducting from the gross internal cubic capacity (i.e.
GRT) the volume of crew living space, engine room, machinery, fuel
and provisions.
(3) Deadweight Tonnage: designated DWT, is the carrying capacity
of a ship, by weight, in units of 1016 kg (2240 lb). It is the weight in
units of 1.016 tonnes (ton) of cargo, stores, fuel, passengers, crew
and provisions carried by the ship when loaded to her maximum
summer load line. It is the difference between the displacement when
loaded to the load line and displacement when light. 3

(4) Displacement Tonnage: designated DT, is the actual weight of the
ship in units of 1.016 tonnes (ton). It is the weight of water she
displaces when afloat and may be either 'loaded' or 'Iight'.
Displacement, loaded, is the weight, in units of 1.016 tonnes, of the ship
and its contents when fully loaded with cargo, to the plimsol mark or the
load line. Displacement, light, is the weight, In units of 1.016 tonnes, of
the ship without cargo, fuel and stores. When not otherwise stated,
displacement tonnage (DT) refers to displacement loaded.
(5) Cargo or freight tonnage: It is a commercial expression and is used
for charging freight. It is either a tonnage of weight or of measurement.
When 1.1328 cu. m. of cargo weighs 1.016 tonnes or less (40 cft. to a
ton), the freight is charged on volume; if it is more, the freight is
charged on actual weight of the cargo. The basis of volume to weight
may vary with the country and the cargo.
4

Grain Capacity: the total capacity of the ship’s cargo spaces and
include hatchways, and the opening of the ship’s deck for lowering
cargo
Bale Capacity: the total amount of underdeck capacity available for
packed cargo
Loadline: marks on the vessel to indicate the limit up to which the
vessel can be loaded without endangering its safety
Length Overall (LOA): the greatest length of the ship, from fore to
aft. This length is important when docking the vessel.
Beam: the greatest breadth of the ship, from port to starboard
Draught: the distance from the bottom of the keel to the waterline
Freeboard: the distance from the waterline to the top of the deck
plating at the side of the deck amidships. 5

Vessel-Ship-Carrier
* Basically, a vessel is anything that can float and can be steered/moved,
either by own means or by other means (for example if it is towed). Apart
from a ship, a floating platform, boats, barges etc. can also be called a
vessel.
* A ship is a floating vessel that transports cargo in order to earn revenue.
Normally when a vessel with its own prime-over and having a length more
than 25 m is called ship.
* Since ship carries various goods or cargo it is also referred as Carrier.
Particularly this term is used for large ships carrying cargo.
* A merchant vessel (MV) is a ship that operates under commercial means.
These boats are often responsible for transporting goods or people, and they
require payment to do so.
6

Ship Characteristics
* When planning and designing port-related marine structures, it is
critical to define the appropriate design vessel or vessels. The vessel
dimensions and characteristics are key to the appropriate design of the
facilities that will service the vessels. The design vessel may be an
actual vessel or a composite of the characteristics of a number of
vessels. Port structures have relatively long useful life hence it is
important to consider the nature of vessel likely to be received in future.
* The basic characteristics of container ships, general cargo ships, auto
carriers, tankers, bulk carriers. and passenger ships are provided in the
tables below.
* The dimensions given in the tables are approximate and may vary
considerably among different vessels in the same size class.
7

Container ship characteristics
General cargo ship characteristics
8

Auto Carrier Characteristics
Tanker Characteristics
9

Bulk Carrier Characteristics
Passenger Ship Characteristics
10

Ship Types
* Trade-wise, a ship is a liner or a tramp. A ship travelling between
definite ports and having particular departure and arrival date is
termed a liner. A ship designed to carry no specific type of cargo and
travels anywhere in the world is a cargo tramp, or simply a tramp.
• Function-wise, a ship is a dry cargo vessel or a tanker. A tanker
carries oil or other liquid in bulk; oil being the most usual cargo. That
carrying oil is termed oil tanker.
*Design-wise, in dry cargo ships, there are two broad classifications
of General cargo vessel and Bulk carrier. The first term, general
cargo vessel, is self-explanatory.
11

Ship Types
• The bulk carrier is a vessel built to carry cargoes such as ore, coal,
clinker, grain and sugar in large quantities.
• That built to carry coal is a collier; it is usually much smaller than the
usual range of bulk carriers, being used mainly for coastal trading.
Sometimes, a combination vessel is built. As for example an OBO,
one built to carry Ore in Bulk or Oil.
• Lloyd's Register of Shipping in World Fleet Statistics, give
information on World Fleet trading commercially. Lloyd's classify
types of ships, depending on the functions, in:
12

Ship Classification
• The ships are classified in order to ensure that the ships are
maintained by the owners in sea worthy-condition.
• Classification is important from the point of marine insurance
because a ship with a high classification fetches a lower insurance
premium than a ship with lower classification.
Some of major classification societies are:
13

* A cargo ship or freighter is a merchant ship that carries cargo, goods
and other materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo
carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year, handling the bulk
of international trade.
* Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being
equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and
come in all sizes.
* Today, they are almost always built of welded steel, and with some
exceptions generally have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years before
being scrapped.
14

Ship Types
(1) General cargo carriers
(2) Oil tankers
(3) Liquefied gas carriers
(4) Chemical tankers
(5) Bulk carriers
(6) Container ships
(7) RO-RO cargo carriers
(8) Refrigerated cargo carriers
(9) Multipurpose Carriers
15

(1) General Cargo Carriers
• A general cargo vessel is a type of cargo vessel that is designed to
carry a variety of different cargoes in a single voyage. Unlike
specialized vessels, such as containerships or tankers, general cargo
vessels are not designed for a specific type of cargo and can carry
different types of cargo on the same voyage.
• General cargo vessels have a more flexible structure and design to
accommodate different types of cargo and their cargo capacity is
measured in metric tons.
• General cargo ships usually have cargo holds, which are storage
areas inside the ship where cargo is placed. These warehouses can be
open or closed and are designed to accommodate different types of
cargo
16

(1) General Cargo Carriers
17

(2) Oil Tankers
• A tanker or oil tanker is a type of cargo vessel specifically designed
to transport large quantities of bulk liquids, such as crude oil,
gasoline, diesel, oils, chemicals and other similar products.
• The design of a tanker includes large storage tanks for the liquid
cargo, as well as piping systems, pumps and valves for loading and
unloading the cargo. These vessels also have ventilation and gas
elimination systems to prevent the accumulation of toxic and
explosive gases.
• The size of tankers varies from small vessels to huge ships capable of
carrying hundreds of thousands of tons of liquid cargo.
18

(2) Oil Tankers
19

(3) Liquefied Gas Carriers
* Also known as LNG ships, this type of vessel is specifically
designed to handle the unique properties of liquefied natural gas
(LNG) during its transportation.
* Due to the flammable and hazardous nature of many of the products
they carry, tankers are subject to strict safety and environmental
regulations.
20

(4) Chemical Tankers
* Chemical tankers usually ranging from 5,000 to 59,000 DWT in
size, which is smaller than the average size of other tankers.
Chemical tankers have many separated cargo tanks that are either
coated with phenolic epoxy or zinc paint or made from stainless
steel.
* Cargo containment systems are of four types: (1) independent tank,
(2) integral tank, (3) gravity tank, and (4) pressure tank.
• The IBC* Code defines three types of chemical tankers: ST1, ST2,
and ST3, with ST1 is a chemical tanker intended to transport most
dangerous products, which require maximum preventive measures to
preclude an escape of such cargo.
* International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk
21

(4) Chemical Tankers
22

(5) Bulk Carriers
• A Bulk Carrier is a type of cargo vessel designed to transport large
quantities of bulk cargo, such as minerals, coal, grain, iron ore,
cement, among other similar materials.
• This type of vessel has a solid and strong structure with large holds
to store bulk cargo. Cargo is poured into the holds through large
hatches on deck.
• Bulk cargo transportation in bulk carriers is one of the most
economical ways to transport large volumes of cargo. Although this
type of vessel is mainly used to transport bulk materials, some of
them can also transport other types of cargo, such as containers or
general cargo.
23

(5) Bulk Carriers
24

(6) Container Ships
* A container ship is a type of cargo vessel specifically designed to
transport cargo containers. These vessels have a specialized structure
for securing and transporting containers, which are large metal boxes
used to transport a wide variety of products, from electronics and
textiles to machinery and foodstuffs.
* Container ships have a flat deck and a support structure that allows
containers to be stacked on top of each other safely and efficiently.
* They are also equipped with fastening and lashing systems to secure
the containers during transport.
* The specialized design of container ships makes them highly
efficient and cost-effective in transporting large volumes of cargo
over long distances. Cargo vessel operators can also adjust the size
and capacity of vessels to suit the specific needs of their customers
and shipping routes.
25

(6) Container Ships
26

(7) RO-RO Cargo Carriers
* A Ro-Ro (Roll-on/Roll-off) vessel is a type of cargo vessel used
primarily to transport vehicles, trucks and heavy machinery, although
other types of roll-on/roll-off cargo can also be transported.
* The main feature of a Ro-Ro vessel is that it has access ramps at both
ends of the vessel that allow vehicles and roll-on/roll-off cargo to roll in
and out of the vessel.
* On a Ro-Ro vessel, vehicles and roll-on/roll-off cargo are loaded and
unloaded directly on the vessel’s pontoon, making the process much
faster and more efficient than on other types of cargo vessels.
* Ro-Ro vessels also have large parking spaces for vehicles as well as
lashing and lashing systems to keep cargo secure during navigation.
* In addition to their use for transporting vehicles and ro-ro cargo, some
Ro-Ro vessels can also carry containerized cargo or other general cargo.
These vessels are usually shorter and wider than other types of cargo
vessels in order to accommodate the roll-on/roll-off cargo inside. 27

(7) RO-RO Cargo Carriers
28

(8) Refrigerated Cargo Carriers
* A refrigerated cargo vessel is designed to transport perishable
products that require a controlled temperature, such as fruits,
vegetables, meat and fish.
* These vessels are equipped with refrigerated chambers to maintain
the proper temperature of the cargo during transport. In addition, they
are equipped with temperature and humidity control systems to
ensure that the cargo is kept in optimal storage and transport
conditions.
* Refrigerated cargo vessels may also include additional features to
ensure cargo quality during transport, such as ventilation systems, air
quality monitoring and atmosphere control.
* The demand for reefer cargo vessels has increased in recent years
due to the increase in global trade in perishable foods and the
growing interest in fair trade and sustainable agriculture.
29

(8) Refrigerated Cargo Carriers
30

(9) Multipurpose Vessel
• A multipurpose vessel is a type of cargo vessel designed to carry a
variety of different cargoes, including bulk cargo, roll-on/roll-off cargo
and general cargo, in a single voyage. These vessels are designed to be
versatile and adapt to a wide range of cargo needs and transportation
requirements.
• Multipurpose vessels have a solid and sturdy structure with large holds
to store bulk cargo, as well as lashing and lashing systems to secure
general cargo. They also usually have access ramps and crane systems
to facilitate the loading and unloading of roll-on/roll-off cargo.
• These vessels can transport a variety of different products, from heavy
machinery and vehicles to bulk products such as grain, minerals and
chemicals. Some multipurpose vessels can also carry containers and
other general cargo, making them suitable for use on a wide range of
trade routes and operations.
31

(9) Multipurpose Vessel
* The versatility of multipurpose vessels makes them a popular choice
for cargo vessel operators who need the flexibility to transport
different types of cargo in a single voyage.
• These vessels can be adapted to the needs of a variety of sectors,
from the energy industry and construction to agriculture and
manufacturing.
32

• The words cargo and freight have become interchangeable in casual
usage. Technically, "cargo" refers to the goods carried aboard the
ship for hire, while "freight" refers to the act of carrying of such
cargo, but the terms have been used interchangeably for centuries.
• Generally, the modern ocean shipping business is divided into two
classes:
• Liner Carrier: work to a fixed schedule, sail on specific dates
between predetermined group of ports, irrespective of whether they
have a full load of cargo operating as "common carriers", calling at a
regularly published schedule of ports. A common carrier refers to a
regulated service where any member of the public may book cargo
for shipment, according to long-established and internationally
agreed rules.
33

• Tramp-tanker: generally this is private business arranged between
the shipper and receiver and facilitated by the vessel owners or
operators, who offer their vessels for hire to carry bulk (dry or liquid)
or break bulk (cargoes with individually handled pieces) to any
suitable port(s) in the world, according to a specifically drawn
contract, called a charter party.
• Larger cargo ships are generally operated by shipping lines:
companies that specialize in the handling of cargo in general.
• Smaller vessels, such as coasters, are often owned by their operators.
34

Container vessel: especially constructed and fitted to handle and transport
containerized cargo
Conventional or break bulk ship: characterized by large open hatches and
fitted with boom-and-winch gears or deck cranes.
RO/RO (Roll On/Roll Off) ship: designed to carry automobiles and heavy
trucks as their primarily cargo.
LASH (The Lighter Aboard Ship) ship: a single-decked vessel with large
hatches, wing tank arrangements, and clear access to the stern.
Bulk carrier: normally tramp vessel which are chartered for a single
voyage, or for transporting seasonal cargo such as grain, ore, and coal.
35

LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas)/LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas): tanker
are solely used for the transportation of liquefied gas, specially constructed
to carry in special pressured tanks
Coaster: used in those parts of the world where the volume of cargo is
relatively small, for example, the coastal trade between West and East
Malaysia
Feeder ship: used to ferry the containers from the ships into the smaller,
shallower ports surrounding a major transport port, vice versa
Other special types of ships, such as Heavy Lift Carriers, Livestock Carriers,
Oil Rig Supply Boat, Reefer/Fruit carriers, Car Carriers, Tug Boats
36

• Cargo ships are categorized partly by cargo or shipping capacity (tonnage),
partly by weight (DWT), and partly by dimensions. Maximum dimensions
such as length and width(beam) limit the canal locks a ship can fit in, water
depth(draft) is a limitation for canals, shallow straits or harbors and height
is a limitation in order to pass under bridges. Common categories include:
Dry cargo: Small Handy size, carriers of 20,000–28,000 DWT
Seawaymax: 28,000 DWT the largest vessel that can traverse the St.
Lawrence Seaway. These are vessels less than 225 m in length, (24 m wide,
and have a draft less than 8.1 m and a height above the waterline no more
than 35.5 m.
(a) Handy Size: carriers of 28,000–40,000 DWT (b) Handymax: carriers of 40,000–
50,000 DWT and (c) Panamax: the largest size that can traverse the original locks of
the Panama canal, a 294 length, a 32 m width, and a 12. m draft as well as a height
limit of 58.0 m. Limited to 52,000 DWT loaded, 80,000 DWT empty.
37

Neopanamax: upgraded Panama locks with upgraded Panama locks
with 366 m length, 55 m beam, 18 m draft, 120,000 DWT.
Capesize: vessels larger than Suezmax and Neopanamax, and must traverse
Cape Agulhas and Cape Horn to travel between oceans, Dimension: about
170,000 DWT, 290 m long, 45 m beam, 18m draught.
Chinamax: carriers of 380,000–400,000 DWT up to 24 m draft, 65 m beam
and 360 m length; these dimensions are limited by port infrastructure in
China.
Baltimax: limited by the Great Belt. The limit is a draft of 15.4 m and an air
draft of 65 m (limited by the clearance of the east bridge of the Great Belt
Fixed Link. The length can be around 240 m and the width around 42 m.
This gives a weight of around 100,000 metric ton.
•
38

Wet cargo
Aframax: oil tankers between 75,000 and 115,000 DWT. This is the largest
size defined by the average freight rate assessment (AFRA) scheme.
Q-Max: liquified natural gas: carrier for Qatar exports. A ship of Q-Max
size is 345 m long and measures 53.8 wide and 34.7 m high, with a shallow
draft of approximately 12 m.
Suezmaz: typically ships of about 160,000 DWT, maximum dimensions are
a beam of 77.5 m, a draft of 20.1 m as well as a height limit of 68 m can
traverse the Suez Canal.
Very Large Crude Carrier-VLCC: They are supertankers between 150,000
and 320,000 DWT.
39

Wet cargo
Malaccamax: ships with a draft less than 20.5 m that can traverse the Strait
of Malacca, typically 300,000 DWT.
Ultra Large Crude Carrier-ULCC: enormous supertankers between 320,000
and 550,000 DWT
The TI-class supertanker: is an Ultra Large Crude Carrier, with a draft that
is deeper than Suezmax, Malaccamax and Neopanamax. This causes
Atlantic/Pacific routes to be very long, such as the long voyages south of
Cape of Good Hope or south of Cape Horn to transit between Atlantic and
Pacific oceans.
Lake Freighters: built for the Great Lakes in North America differ in design
from sea water–going ships because of the difference in wave size and
frequency in the lakes. A number of these ships are larger than Seawaymax
and cannot leave the lakes and pass to the Atlantic Ocean, since they do not
fit the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
40

Major Cargo
41

Cargo Types
Heavy and oversized cargo
Heavy load - the place of cargo weighing over 80 kg, bulky - goods that are
the size and / or form requires the use of special handling equipment,
packaging, additional funds, exceed the dimensions loading hatches and
cargo holds of passenger ships.
Among the items of goods related to large-sized - pipes, separate equipment,
cable drums and reels, aircraft engines, automobiles and other goods related
to its characteristics, this kind of special cargo.
Perishable (term) load Cargo
Special goods whose status or suitability for a particular purpose may worsen
as a result of adverse changes in temperature, humidity, or delay in delivery.
• Among the items of goods relating to perishable: plant foods: fruits and
vegetables, berries, citrus fruits;
42

Cargo Types
Perishable (term) load Cargo
Animal products: meat and poultry, fish and seafood, chilled and smoked
fish, eggs, including hatcheries, fish roe; by-products: butter, fats, frozen
fruits and vegetables, meats, canned goods, meat, cheese, dairy
products; live plants, flowers, seedlings, tubers and seeds; live fish stocks:
fry, fingerlings, live fish roe, preserved blood, vaccines, serums, medical and
biological preparations, living human bodies, frozen embryos. newspapers,
magazines.
Moist (wet) weight Cargo
Special goods containing liquids (except for items classified as dangerous
goods). Among the items of goods belonging to the wet - the liquid in a
waterproof container, food packed with wet ice, fresh, frozen or chilled meat
fish, seafood and vegetables, which may leak fluids, live animals.
43

Cargo Types
The goods with an unpleasant smell (fragrant)
Special cargo which because of its strong odor may be taken only packed in
waterproof containers sealed in such a way that does not pass any smell.
Among the items of goods belonging to the "fragrant" - fresh skin, essential
oils, fresh or salted entrails (intestines).
Live animals
Special cargo transportation rules are set in IATA Resolution 620,
Supplement A: «Live Animals Regulation» (Regulations for the carriage of
live animals), which came into effect from October 1994. Alphabetical list of
animals included in the Rules. The term "live animals" includes live animals,
birds, mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians.
44

Cargo Types
Dangerous goods
• Special cargo, representing objects or substances, which are carriage by air
of a substantial risk to human health and property. The list of classes of
dangerous goods and their name is contained in the "Technical Instructions
for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air" ICAO.
Other Goods
Art and museum exhibits
Human blood and organs
Diplomatic cargo (mail)
Valuable cargo
45

Cargo Size
* Cargo ships are generally divided into two sizes: the 20ft (also known
as a TEU) and the 40ft (also called an FEU).
* Considering that containers are measured in TEUs, TEU capacity is
the number of containers that can be placed on the deck or below the
deck of a vessel. The maximum number of units that can fit on a
freight liner will naturally vary depending on the size of the unit.
Nowadays, the biggest freight liner can transport more than 21,000
TEUs.
* Each 20ft unit measures about 20ft by 8ft by 8ft, and it has a total
volume of about 1360 cft. By multiplying the volume of these
containers by the number of TEU containers the boat can carry, the
boat can hold a total of 29,121,680 cft 46

Piracy
* Piracy is still quite common in some waters,
particularly in the Malacca Straits, a narrow
channel between Indonesia and
Singapore/Malaysia, and cargo ships are still
commonly targeted.
* In 2004, the governments of those three
nations agreed to provide better protection for
the ships passing through the Straits.
* The waters off Somalia and Nigeria are also
prone to piracy, while smaller vessels are also
in danger along parts of the South American,
Southeast Asian and Caribean Sea. 47

Security Concern
China’s Port Kyaukphyu in Myanmar and
its impact on India's defense landscape
48

Security Concern
* China is speeding up the construction work of Kyaukphyu Port in
Myanmar.
* China is busy building a big port in Myanmar, called the
Kyaukphyu port. This is super close to where India is planning to
have its new submarine base, INS Varsha.
* The port in Myanmar isn't just for docking ships; it could become a
strategic location for China to monitor our naval activities closely.
* But don't worry, India isn't just sitting back. We are upping the
game, setting up radars along the coast and getting better at
watching what's happening in the sea. This is like setting up
security cameras in your neighborhood.
49

Vessel Names
* A category designation appears before the vessel's name. A few
examples of prefixes for naval ships are "USS" (United States Ship),
"HMS" (Her/His Majesty's Ship), "HMCS" (Her/His Majesty's
Canadian Ship) and "HTMS" (His Thai Majesty's Ship).
* A few examples for prefixes for merchant ships are "RMS" (Royal
Mail Ship, usually a passenger liner), "MV" (Motor Vessel, powered
by diesel), "MT" (Motor Tanker, powered vessel carrying liquids only)
"FV" Fishing Vessel and "SS" (Screw Steamer, driven by propellers or
screws, often understood to stand for Steamship). "TS", sometimes
found in first position before a merchant ship's prefix, denotes that it is
a Turbine Steamer.
50

Indian Flet
51

Port Planning and Development
PRESENTED BY
Dr. C. S. Gokhale
1

* Port development can refer either to the creation of a new port or
to the expansion of an existing one, usually aimed at increasing its
capacitycapacity or upgrading port operations. The issue of port
development is examined at three different levels: national, local, and
port terminal.
* Complete study of the above can be a complicated procedure since it
requires contribution by many specialists of various disciplines.
* In designing at the port or terminal level, aspects pertaining to the
maritime aspects of ports are also dealt with. Such issues include the
general layout of breakwaters and quays and the design of entrances
and maneuvering areas.
2

National Port Policy
* Until recently, ports in many countries have usually been developed
as part of local port development programs. Such programs
normally do not take into consideration the corresponding plans of
other ports within the country, a factor that would have resulted in
better coordination for increased national benefit.
* Indeed, in many cases, instead of attempting to achieve mutual
complementing of aims, undue competition tends to develop between
ports within the same country.
* In government owned ports this situation can result in uneconomical
investment of national capital in competing projects, and moreover,
in loss of opportunities to attract a portion of international maritime
traffic. 3

* The competitive tendencies relate to the foreign trade of the country,
foreign goods in transit, and goods being transshipped: the international
flows that evidence potential for development as opposed to internal
transports, which have more-or-less preset movement patterns. These trade
flows can be defined as follows:
(1) Foreign trade flows relate to the exports and imports of a country, and
consequently, have their origin or destination in that country.
(2) Goods in transit are those goods in international flow whose land
transport leg uses the territory of the country and one of its ports.
(3) Goods being transshipped, where both origin and destination are
located outside the country but both of whose transport modes are
marine. Consequently, in this flow only the specific ports of the country
are used, not overland transport. The latter two flows in general make up
the target of the competition between ports in a country.
4

* Given that major ports constitute integral elements of the transport
network of a country, it is evident that some sort of framework for
centralized coordination of port development efforts is required at
a national level.
* A significant service that such coordination would produce refers to
determination of the most suitable ports for attracting transit or
transshipment movement on a national level.
* This acquires particular significance nowadays, where such cargo
movement is conducted mainly in containers, and the corresponding
port installations are very costly.
5

• In more general terms, the existence of a national port policy could
broadly define the role of each port in a country, so that in the
context of the national economy, the available funding can be
employed as productively as possible.
* Depending on a country’s development and its tendency for
privatization, the allocation of roles to each port may be conducted in
such a manner as to permit a large percentage of these ports to be
released from national coordination and to undertake their own
development.
6

Port Functions
* Today, the port has acquired its standing within the intermodal
transport system by constituting a nodal point between two transport
modes.
* In water transportation there are two modes one sea-port and other is river
ports, this mode concerns river transport. The nodal linkage between two
different modes of transport should be functional, permitting efficient and
secure movement of passengers, cargo, and vehicles.
* A civil port is a passenger, cargo, or combined port depending on the traffic
that it serves. In a combined part, both passengers and cargo provide a
significant percentage of the traffic. Of course, specialized ports exist, such
as marinas (for harboring pleasure craft), fishing ports, and naval military
bases.
7

Loading and Unloading of Cargo
* There are two basic methods of loading and unloading cargo to
vessels. They are lift on–lift off (Lo-Lo), which refers to the loading
and unloading method, employing either the vessel’s gear or quay-
side cranes, and roll on–roll off (Ro-Ro), which refers to the loading
and unloading method conducted by horizontally moving equipment.
* Vessels allowing Ro-Ro type of loading and unloading are equipped
with a loading ramp that permits the movement of cargo
handling equipment and other vehicles (trucks, forklifts, straddle
carriers, tractors, etc.) between quay and vessel.
* At cargo ports, the type and packaging of cargo products
determine the manner of loading and unloading as well as of
other operations.
8

* The following are basic categories of port terminals identified, each
having varying equipment and operational features:
(1) General cargo terminals: These are terminals equipped with
conventional cranes, which handle cargo in all types of packaging
compatible with cranes. The packaging could be parcels, sacks,
pallets, or containers. The latter should not, however, constitute a
major percentage of the traffic, because otherwise a specialized
container terminal would be required to improve throughput
performance.
(2) Container terminals: In this case, containers are handled using
special loading/unloading, transfer, and stacking equipment. They are
typified by extensive yard areas for container stowage.
(3) Multipurpose terminals: These terminals combine a variety of
functions in a single terminal, where containers, but also
conventional general cargo or other packaged products, can be
handled.
9

(4) Ro-Ro terminals: Here cargo is transferred within a roll on–roll
off system, with loading and unloading of cargo by horizontally
moving lorries, forklifts, tractors, and so on.
(5) Bulk cargo terminals: At these terminals, liquid or dry bulk cargo
without packaging is handled. Usually, pumping machinerywith
suitable piping or grab cranes is used at these terminals.
* The main quantity that may be affected by a suitably implemented
national port policy lies in international cargo flow. Consequently,
the initial and basic step in formulating a country’s port system
includes the determination of those ports that will undertake to serve
the flows of foreign trade, transshipment, or transit. These flows
operate more-or-less independently of one another, and thus for
simplification of the analysis, may be studied individually.
10

* The basic criteria to be considered in developing a proposition as to
the roles of a country’s ports may be classified into the following
four groups:
(1) The national and regional development policies of the country.
(2) The transportation infrastructure of the hinterland and its prospects.
(3) Existing port capacity and potential for development.
(4) Cargo forecasts for each port
* After each of the three independent international flows has been
examined, the findings should be pooled, to define the core of the
country’s port system. Thus, the role of each port that participates in
international cargo flow will be specified and the basic cargo
throughputs can be determined. Considering these throughput values,
and factoring in the national flows, master plans can be drawn up for
individual ports. 11

* Apart from international cargo flow, other aspects of the overall
port development study are usually examined. Although these are
not of primary significance in the formulation of the core of a
national port system, they do have a role in evaluation of the main
subsystems and in developing the final proposal. Such aspects
include:
(1) Special bulk cargoes, such as coal, cement,
(2) Petroleum products, grains
(3) Industrial ports
(4) Shipbuilding and ship repair
(5) Free zones
(6) Coastal shipping
(7) Passenger movement
12

Port Master Plan
* The master plan of a port allocates the land within the port to the
various uses required, describes the projects needed to implement the
plan, and gives an indicative implementation scheme by
development phase.
* These phases are related directly to the projected port traffic
which has to be monitored closely. When in due course a decision is
reached to proceed with implementation of a development scheme,
this should be integrated smoothly with, or derive from, the master
plan for the port.
* Therefore, it is important that a master plan exist, and drafting
one should be among the primary concerns of port management.
13

Port Master Plan
* A variety of continuously varying factors have a bearing on Port
Master, ranging from statistical data on port traffic to
international treaties. Hence plan needs regular revision, at least
every five years.
* Moreover, if during the design of a particular development phase the
need arises for a review of the plan, this should be conducted
concurrently, if possible, to ensure compatibility with the other
functions and operations of the port.
* However, the lack of a master plan at a particular port should not
delay the making of decisions for small-scale immediate
improvement, although it is recommended that at the first
opportunity an effort should be made to draft a master plan for the
port.
14

Long-Term Planning
* In the event that a national ports plan does not exist, the consultant
should proceed with drafting a master plan, after studying the
following components of long-term planning:
(1) The role of the port—in particular:
(a) The servicing of its inland area as regards foreign trade
(b) The support that the port may offer to the region’s commercial
and industrial development
(c ) The attraction of transiting and transshipment traffic
(2) The responsibility of the port for the construction of both port and
land works. Frequently, more than one agency becomes involved: for
example, when a port area is serviced by a railroad.
15

Long-Term Planning
(3) The land use in the area and the potential for expansion of the port.
It is important that there be general agreement between interested
parties over the proposed expansions and land use so that the
resulting master plan meets with wide acceptance.
(4) The policy for financing the port development, which may be
formulated on the basis of its own resources and/or through a state
grant.
* In general, in modern port development the basic requirement is for
large expanses of land to ensure productive operation of the
individual terminals. Therefore, a careful examination of point 3
assumes particular importance..
16

Medium-Term Planning
* As stated, each port development scheme should be incorporated in
the master plan and should proceed to implementation following the
results of an appropriate feasibility study.
* The latter study should refer individually to each independent
section of the overall development proposal, such as a container
terminal or a bulk cargo terminal.
* Thus, under a positive but reduced yield from the overall proposal,
the risk of concealment of a nonproductive section is avoided.
* The drafting of a port development plan calls for the conduct of the
following special studies:
17

(1) Analysis of the functionality of the port as regards the services
offered in conjunction with capacity.
(2) Designs, with budgets
(3) Operational design, with budget
(4) Financial and financing study
* In large port development projects it is customary to reexamine the
organization and management of the port operating agency and to
recommend organizational improvements on a small or larger scale.
* It is possible that many of the ports in a country do not warrant a
development effort beyond maintenance of existing structures or
appropriate modification, such as to serve fishing vessels or pleasure
craft.
18

* Such modifications are nowadays met quite frequently, since old
ports, traditionally being part of the core of their town, cannot easily
incorporate large land expanses needed in modern port layouts.
* Also, environmental and social issues do not allow in many cases
major expanses of an old port site. The requirement that the
citizenship should be granted free access to the waterfront of their
city is gradually being respected by more and more authorities.
* Nevertheless, the problem of what to do with the old port
installations is a complex one, where both the needs of the local
community and the benefits of the relevant port authority should be
accommodated.
19

*As noted above a common trend is to change the character of a
past commercial port into a marina or fishing vessels refuge.
There are also examples (London, Marseille, etc.) where old ports
were completely refurbished into commercial or recreational zones,
some of them arousing controversial.
* Moreover, since ports interact in many ways with the surrounding
township, port master planning should take into account, apart from
strictly engineering issues, such aspects as social, economic, and
environmental constraints and should easily fit within the
relevant town and regional plans.
* This frequently calls for a compromise between the requirements
of the port and the local authorities.
20

Principles of Port Design
Guiding Principle:
* If the undertaking involves the development of an existing port, before
proceeding with development plans it would be prudent to make efforts
to
(1) increase productivity and
(2) improve existing installations.
* Factors that contribute to increasing productivity in an existing port are
improvements in loading and unloading practices, to the overall operation
of the port terminals, and to modernization of cargo handling and hauling
equipment. As pointed out, the expansions that may be required
additionally to the improvements above should be incorporated in the
master plan of the port and should be implemented within a time horizon
in order to constitute productive projects according to the pertinent
feasibility studies. 21

Guiding Principle
* Particularly as regards the individual terminals within a port, the
respective capacity calculations are based on different factors,
depending on the nature of each terminal as follows:
(1) In conventional cargo terminals, the required number of berths is
determined first, to keep vessels' waiting time below a specified
limit, determined by economic and other criteria.
(2) In container terminals, the land area required for the unobstructed
movement of cargo flow is calculated.
(3) For specialized bulk cargo terminals, the cargo flow during loading
and un-loading has to be calculated first, to ensure that vessels will
be serviced within acceptable periods of time.
22

Guiding Principle
* As arrival times of commercial vessels at ports cannot adhere to an exact
schedule, enabling ready scheduling of requisite berthing and eliminating
waiting time, to determine the number of berths a compromise is usually
made between two extreme situations: on the one hand, the minimization of
vessel waiting time, and on the other, the maximization of berth occupancy.
Port Costs:
* Two factors constitute port costs: investment cost, which does not
depend on traffic, and operating cost, which depends on traffic. If the
cost were to be expressed per unit of cargo throughput, the relation between
cost and traffic volume is depicted as in Figure 1. Port throughput measures
reflect the amount of cargo or number of vessels the port handles over time
* A ship's cost in port is also made up of two constituents: the cost of the
ship waiting time and the cost of the ship while berthed.
23

Port Costs:
1, Port's cost;,
2 cost of operation;
3, capital cost)
Fig. 1: Port cost as a function of cargo throughput
* The ship's total port cost curve expressed as above is shown in
Figure 2. The sum of the port cost and the cost of the ship in port
provides a total cost, as shown in Figure 3.
24

Port Costs: 1, Ship cost in port;
2, cost of waiting;
3, cost of berth)
Figure 2 Cost of ship in port
1, Total cost;
2, cost of vessel;
3, cost of port.
Fig. 2 Cost of ship in port.
Figure 3 Total vessel-port cost curve 25

Port Costs:
* Traffic corresponding to point B in Figure 3 is less than that at point A.
This means that the optimum traffic volume for a port is lower when the
total cost is taken into account than when either the total port cost or the
total vessel cost is considered. Of course, the difference between A and
B depends on vessel types, which determines the corresponding vessel
cost curves.
* A measure often used to describe the level of service offered to vessels
is the ratio of waiting time to service time. It is generally recommended
that this ratio be lower than, say, 20%, but there is a danger here of
showing an improvement of service provided through a unilateral
increase in service time. This is why for the purposes of evaluation,
absolute values of total vessel waiting time at the port are also required.
26

Traffic Fluctuations:
* Even a proportionally small but persistent increase in the traffic of a
port may very quickly cause congestion in a port lacking in reserve
spaces; the congestion will cause a reduction in the productivity of
serviced vessels, which aggravates the problem further.
* The increase in traffic may be caused by a new shipping line, larger
cargo volumes, more frequent or occasional vessel calls, and so on.
Even a change in the packing method of a product of large throughput
may affect the efficiency and productivity of a port adversely.
* It is assumed that the problems created by a steady increase in traffic
need to be met in good time through the implementation of suitable
development projects based on the master plan of the port.
27

* The fluctuations around more-or-less regular average traffic may be
faced by a carefully designed emergency plan according to which old
quays, anchorages, and so on, on reserve, which are not used as
vessel servicing positions, may be brought into operation.
* Usually, the reserve capacity of a port consists of inexpensive
installations, which, however, give rise to a high cost of operation.
These reserves should be allocated equally among all the port's
sections.
* Other means of a temporary increase to port capacity could be an
improvement in cargo handling.
28

* For example, an increase in work gangs per vessel serviced, the
hiring of additional mobile cranes or other equipment or the use of
lighters for loading and discharging on two sides.
* The size of the cargo to be taken for planning purposes should be
selected carefully so that potential fluctuations may be absorbed with
some acceptable increase in vessel waiting time. As regards high-cost
installations and vessels, a method of smoothing the peaks in waiting
time is that of serving by priority, according to which, when the
vessel arrives at a predetermined time, it will have guaranteed access.
* The more such agreements between ports and liner operators are
signed, the greater the smoothing of the traffic curve.
29

The Optimum State:
* The chief benefit from investments in port projects is the possibility if
reducing total vessel time at a port. Despite the fact that ships are the first
party to benefit, in the medium term both the port and the country benefit
overall from the development of ports. From a practical point of view,
optimization of the waiting time-quay use issue may result in a 75%
occupancy factor for a group of, say, five general cargo berths, which
produces a wait of half a day, for an average service time of 3.5 days.
* This means that over a long period of time: 55% of vessels will berth
immediately, 10% of vessels will wait for 2 days, and 5% of vessels will wait
for 5 days. It can be deduced from the above that the fact that some vessels
experience excessive waiting times does not necessarily mean that the port is
congested.
30

Grouping of Installations:
* Depending on the type of cargo traffic and on the equipment required,
berthing positions and other installations are grouped in more-or-less
independently operating areas of a port. This grouping implies
specialization in the type of cargo traffic being served in each port
section. Thus, better utilization is achieved: for example, in wharf
depths and quicker servicing of vessels and cargoes. However, there are
also disadvantages to grouping port installations.
* Basically, the flexibility obtainable by the greater number of berths is
reduced. This offers a more productive exploitation of both water and
land spaces. Implementing a sort of grouping therefore should proceed
when conditions are ripe: for example, when there is high traffic or
when a good number of berths are required.
31

Grouping of Installations:
* An intermediate stage of providing a multipurpose terminal serving two
(or even three) types of movement may be interposed prior to the final
stage of specialized port terminal.
* This terminal will require cargo handling equipment capable of
handling more than one type of cargo. Such equipment may be more
expensive, so the servicing of vessels and of cargoes may not attain the
efficiency of specialized terminals, but there is more than acceptable
utilization of equipment and in general of the entire installation of a
multipurpose terminal.
* A multipurpose terminal should retain some flexibility so that in the
future it may be converted into a specialized terminal when conditions
permit 32

Port Productivity
* The productivity of a port is the measure of its ability to move cargo
through it within a unit of time under actual conditions. It is known
that cargoes undergo various stages of handling while in portjfor
example, imported goods undergo the following handling
procedures:
(a) Discharging while a vessel is berthed
(b) Transport to storage area and stowage
(c) Removal from storage and transport to area of transshipment or to
means of overland transport
(d) Loading onto means of overland transport
(e) Departure from the port
* Obviously, the total productivity of a port is determined by the
lowest partial productivity of each link in the cargo handling chain.
33

Port Productivity
* The conditions prevailing at the port at any given moment, such as
weather conditions, human resources, and condition of machinery,
affect the productivity of the partial procedures considerably.
Consequently, a substantial time range representative of prevailing
conditions has to be assumed for the evaluation.
* The cargo handling practices pursued in each port have a decisive
bearing on productivity, and any attempt at their improvement should
also factor-in a period of adjustment of these practices to the new
machinery and handling methods.
* Generally, a reference to any measure of productivity should be
correlated with its corresponding time period. If this involves an
extensive time period, on the order of several months, productivity
may be reduced to half its value achieved in a short period of time
(e.g., 1 hour).
34

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