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- 1. Page 1 of9 Thinking and Intelligence Key Question: What Are the Components of Thought? Core Concept: Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brainuses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts. Key Question: Cognitive process involved in forming a new mental representation by manipulating available information? Concepts Concepts – Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience v Natural concepts represent objects and events v Artificial concepts are defined by rules We organize much of our declarative memories into concept hierarchies
- 2. Imagery and CognitiveMaps v Visual imagery adds complexity and richness to our thinking v Thinking with sensory imagery can be useful in problem solving v Cognitive maps-a cognitive representation of a visual concept Frontal Lobe Control Frontal Lobe is particularly important for coordinating brainactivity by: v Keepingtrackof the episode (situation) v Understanding the context (meaning) v Responding to a specific stimulus Frontal lobe is also involved in intuition- making judgmentswithout consciously reasoning Schemas and Scripts Help you Know What to Expect Schema – A cluster of related concepts that provides a framework for thinking about objects, events, or ideas Key Question: What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess? Core Concept: Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective strategies,called algorithms
- 3. and heuristics, theyalso know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making. Page 2 of 9 Problem Solving Good problem solvers are skilled at v Identifying the problem v Selecting a strategy Selecting a Strategy Algorithms – v Problem-solving procedures or formulas v Guarantee a correct outcome if applied correctly (recipe) Heuristics – v Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks v Do not guarantee a correct solution (rule of thumb)
- 4. Heuristics Useful heuristics include: Workingbackward Searching for analogies Breaking a big problem into smaller problems Working Backwards Page 3 of 9 Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set – Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used successfully for a previous problem Functional fixedness – Inability to perceive a new use for an object associatedwith a different purpose Self-imposed limitations-
- 5. Using unnecessary restrictions;Not thinking “outside the box” Unscramble These Words nelin ensce sdlen lecam slfal dlchi neque raspe klsta nolem dlsco hsfle naorg egsta The Nine-Dot Problem Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines? Page 4 of 9
- 6. Judging and MakingDecisions Confirmation Bias Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree Hindsight Bias Tendency,after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance Anchoring Bias Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on information appearing at the beginning of the problem Representativeness Bias Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once somethingis categorized, it shares all features of othermembers in that category Availability Bias Faulty heuristic strategy that comes from our tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind Tyranny of Choice
- 7. Too many choicescan interfere with effective decision making, sometimes to the pointof immobilizing us. On Becoming a Creative Genius What produces extraordinary creativity? v Knowledge; expertise Page 5 of 9 v Aptitude v Personality characteristics § Independence, intense interest in problem, willingness to restructure, preference for complexity, need for stimulating interaction On Becoming an Expert Differences between experts and novices: v Knowledge and how it is organized -“tricks of the trade” v Considerable practice Key Question: How is Intelligence Measured? Core Concept: Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view
- 8. intelligence as anormally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks. Founding of the Intelligence Test 1904, New French law required all children to attend school Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon v developed test to identify students needing remedial help v Measured current performance v Emphasized training and opportunity could affect intelligence Key Question: How is Intelligence Measured? Binet-Simon Test calculated a child’s mental age (MA) and compared it to his or her chronological age (CA) MA: average age at which individuals achieve a particular score CA: number of years sincebirth (age) Determined that remedial help was needed when one’s MA was two years behind one’s CA Stanford and Binet’s test in America:
- 9. Testing became widespreadfor the assessment of Army recruits, immigrants, and schoolchildren The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the most respected of the new American tests of intelligence v Now measured intelligence quotient (IQ) v IQ=(MA/CA)*100 Calculting IQs “on the Curve” The original IQ calculation was abandoned in favor of standard scores based on the normal distribution Page 6 of 9 Normal distribution – Bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population Normal range – Scores falling in (approximately) the middle two-thirdsof a normal distribution The Exceptional Child Mental retardation –
- 10. Often conceived asrepresenting the lower 2% of the IQ range Giftedness – Often conceived as representing the upper 2% of the IQ range Key Question: Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? Core Concept: Some psychologists believe that intelligence comprises one general factor, g, while others believe intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s G Factor Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Cognitive Theories of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Page 7 of 9 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
- 11. Practical Intelligence Ability tocope with the environment, “street smarts”; also called contextual intelligence Analytical Intelligence (Logical Reasoning) Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers, ability measured by most IQ tests Creative Intelligence Form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts, involves insight and creativity Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Page 8 of 9 Linguistic Often measured on IQ tests with reading comprehension and vocabulary tests Logical-Mathematical Often measured on IQ tests with analogies, math problems and logicproblems
- 12. Spatial Ability to formmental images of objects and thinkabout their relationships in space Musical Ability to perceive and create patterns of rhythms and pitches Bodily-Kinesthetic Ability for controlled movementand coordination Interpersonal Ability to understand otherpeople’s emotions, motives and actions Intrapersonal Ability to know oneself and to develop a sense of identity Gardner’s Three New Intelligences Naturalistic intelligence Spiritual intelligence Existential intelligence Cultural Definitions of Intelligence Cross-cultural psychologists have shown that “intelligence” has different meanings in different cultures. Intelligence and Animals Animals are capable of intelligentbehavior, oftentied to
- 13. particular biological niche Languagein non-humans at surprising level of sophistication Key Question: How Do Psychologist Explain IQ Differences Among Groups? Core Concept: While most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, they disagree on the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups. Hereditarian argumentsmaintain that intelligence is substantially influence by genetics Environmental approaches argue that intelligence can be dramatically shaped by influencessuch as Health Economics Education Page 9 of 9 Heritability and Group Differences Heritability – Amount of trait variation within a group that can be attributed to genetic differences
- 14. Research with twinsand adopted children shows genetic influenceson a wide range of attributes, including intelligence Research has also shown that racial and class differences in IQ scores can be eliminated by environmental changes v Adoption Studies v Social Class v Head Start
- 15. THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE Key Question WhatAre the Components of Thought? Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts. What Are the Components of Thought? Thinking – Cognitive process involved in forming a new mental representation by manipulating available information Concepts Concepts – Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience • Natural concepts represent objects and events • Artificial concepts are defined by rules
- 16. We organize muchof our declarative memories into concept hierarchies Imagery and Cognitive Maps • Visual imagery adds complexity and richness to our thinking • Thinking with sensory imagery can be useful in problem solving • Cognitive maps-a cognitive representation of a visual concept Frontal Lobe Control Frontal Lobe is particularly important for coordinating brain activity by: • Keeping track of the episode (situation) • Understanding the context (meaning) • Responding to a specific stimulus Frontal lobe is also involved in intuition- making judgments without consciously reasoning
- 17. Schemas and ScriptsHelp You Know What to Expect Schema – A cluster of related concepts that provides a framework for thinking about objects, events, or ideas Script – A cluster of knowledge about sequences of interrelated, specific events and actions expected to occur in particular settings Key Question What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess? Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective strategies, called algorithms and heuristics, they also know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making. Problem Solving Good problem solvers are skilled at • Identifying the problem • Selecting a strategy
- 18. Selecting a Strategy Algorithms– • Problem-solving procedures or formulas • Guarantee a correct outcome if applied correctly (recipe) Heuristics – • Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks • Do not guarantee a correct solution (rule of thumb) Heuristics Useful heuristics include: Working backward Searching for analogies Breaking a big problem into smaller problems Working Backwards Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set –
- 19. Tendency to respondto a new problem in the manner used successfully for a previous problem Functional fixedness – Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose Self-imposed limitations- Using unnecessary restrictions; not thinking “outside the box” Unscramble These Words nelin ensce sdlen lecam slfal dlchi neque raspe klsta nolem
- 20.
- 21. groan gates The algorithm youused to solve the first column probably kept you from seeing the multiple solutions for the words in the second column. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias
- 22. Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyrannyof Choice Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance Judging and Making Decisions
- 23. Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias AnchoringBias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on information appearing at the beginning of the problem Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once something is categorized, it shares all features of
- 24. other members inthat category Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Faulty heuristic strategy that comes from our tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias
- 25. Tyranny of Choice Toomany choices can interfere with effective decision making, sometimes to the point of immobilizing us. On Becoming a Creative Genius What produces extraordinary creativity? • Knowledge; expertise • Aptitude • Personality characteristics restructure, preference for complexity, need for stimulating interaction On Becoming an Expert Differences between experts and novices: • Knowledge and how it is organized -“tricks of the trade” • Considerable practice
- 26. Key Question How isIntelligence Measured? Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view intelligence as a normally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks. Founding of the Intelligence Test 1904, New French law required all children to attend school Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon • Developed test to identify students needing remedial help • Measured current performance • Emphasized training and opportunity could affect intelligence How is Intelligence Measured Binet-Simon Test calculated a child’s mental age (MA) and compared it to his or her chronological age (CA)
- 27. MA: average ageat which individuals achieve a particular score CA: number of years since birth (age) Determined that remedial help was needed when one’s MA was two years behind one’s CA How is Intelligence Measured Stanford and Binet’s test in America: Testing became widespread for the assessment of Army recruits, immigrants, and schoolchildren The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the most respected of the new American tests of intelligence • Now measured intelligence quotient (IQ) • IQ=(MA/CA)*100 Calculating IQs “On the Curve” The original IQ calculation was abandoned in favor of standard scores based on the normal distribution Normal distribution – Bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population Normal range – Scores falling in (approximately) the middle two-thirds of a normal
- 28. distribution Calculating IQs “Onthe Curve” The Exceptional Child Mental retardation – Often conceived as representing the lower 2% of the IQ range Giftedness – Often conceived as representing the upper 2% of the IQ range Key Question Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? Some psychologists believe that intelligence comprises one general factor, g, while others believe intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s G Factor
- 29. g is theassumption behind IQ tests which represents a person’s intelligence as a single number IQ < 70 mental retardation IQ = 100 average IQ > 130 gifted Psychometric Theories of Intelligence Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Fluid Intelligence – creative problem solving, flexible thinking (we lose some of this with normal aging) Crystallized Intelligence – memory for facts, e.g. vocabulary skills (maintain with normal aging. Vocabulary is the single largest contributor to over all IQ score) Cognitive Theories of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
- 30. Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence(Logical Reasoning) Creative Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence (Logical Reasoning) Creative Intelligence Ability to cope with the environment, “street smarts” also called contextual intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence (Logical Reasoning) Creative Intelligence Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers, ability
- 31. measured by mostIQ tests Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence (Logical Reasoning) Creative Intelligence Form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts, involves insight and creativity Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal
- 32. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Oftenmeasured on IQ tests with reading comprehension and vocabulary tests Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic
- 33. Interpersonal Intrapersonal Often measured onIQ tests with analogies, math problems and logic problems Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Ability to form mental images of objects and think about their relationships in space Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic
- 34. Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Ability to perceiveand create patterns of rhythms and pitches Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Ability for controlled movement and coordination
- 35. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Abilityto understand other people’s emotions, motives and actions Gardner’s Seven Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic
- 36. Interpersonal Intrapersonal Ability to knowoneself and to develop a sense of identity Key Question How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups? While most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, they disagree on the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups. How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups? Hereditarian arguments maintain that intelligence is substantially influence by genetics Environmental approaches argue that intelligence can be dramatically shaped by influences such as Health Economics
- 37. Education Heritability and GroupDifferences Heritability – Amount of trait variation within a group that can be attributed to genetic differences Heritability and Group Differences Research with twins and adopted children shows genetic influences on a wide range of attributes, including intelligence Research has also shown that racial and class differences in IQ scores can be eliminated by environmental changes • Adoption Studies • Social Class • Head Start Page 1 of 16 Psychological Disorders
- 38. Key Question: Whatis Psychological Disorder Core Concept: The medical model takesa “disease” view, while psychology sees psychological disorder as an interaction of biological, cognitive, social, and behavioral factors. What is Psychological Disorder? Three classic signssuggest severe psychological disorder v Hallucinations v Delusions v Severe affective (emotional) disturbances Part of a continuum ranging from absence of disorder to severe disorder Figure 14.2 Normality and abnormality as a continuum Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: Historical Roots Ancient World v Supernatural powers- v Possession by demons and spirits 400 B. C. v Physical causes- v Hippocrates-imbalance of humors
- 39. Middle Ages v Medievalchurch v Demons and witchcraft 18th Century v Mental disorders are diseases of the mind v Similar to otherphysical diseases v Objective causes requiring specific treatments Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: The Psychological Model Behavioral perspective – Abnormal behaviors can be acquired through behavioral learning – operant and classical conditioning Page 2 of 16 Cognitive perspective – Abnormal behaviors are influenced by mental processes – how people perceive themselves and their relations with others Social-cognitive-behavioral approach v Combines psychology’s 3 major perspectives v Behavior, cognition, and social/environmental factors all influence each other Recognize the influence of biology
- 40. Indicators of Abnormality Distress:Does the individual showunusual or prolonged levels of unease or anxiety? Maladaptiveness: Does the person act in ways that make others fearful or interfere with his or her well- being? Irrationality: Does the person act or talk in ways that are irrational or incomprehensible to others? Unpredictability: Does the individual behave erraticallyand inconsistently at different times or form one situation to another; experiencing a loss of control? Unconventionality and Undesirable Behavior: Does the person behave in ways that violate social norms? Key Question: How are Psychological Disorders Classified? Core Concept: The DSM-IV, most widely used system, classifies disorders by their mental and behavioral symptoms. Overview of DSM-IV Classification System DSM-IV –TR (2000): v Fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders v Includes 300 disorders
- 41. Figure 14.5. Lifetimeprevalence of psychological disorders Developmental Disorders Can appear at any age, but oftenfirst seen in childhood Autism – Marked by impoverished ability to “read” other peoples, use language, and interact socially Dyslexia – A reading disability, thought by someexperts to involve a braindisorder Page 3 of 16 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder – Disability involving shortattention span, distractibility, and extreme difficulty in remaining inactive for any period Axis I Clinical Syndromes Anxiety Disorders Mood Disorders Addictive Disorders Somatoform Disorders Dissociative Disorders Schizophrenic Disorders
- 42. Clinical Syndromes: AnxietyDisorders The anxiety disorders are a class of disorders marked by feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety. Generalized anxiety disorder is marked by a chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat…”free-floating anxiety.” Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety that usually occur suddenly and unexpectedly. These paralyzing attacks have physical symptoms. After a number of theseattacks, victims may become so concerned about exhibiting panic in public that they may be afraid to leave home, developing agoraphobia or a fear of going out in public. Phobic disorder is marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger. Particularly common are acrophobia – fear of heights, claustrophobia – fear of small, enclosed places, brontophobia – fear of storms, hydrophobia – fear of water, and various animal and insect phobias. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is marked by persistent, uncontrollable intrusions of unwanted
- 43. thoughts (obsessions) andurges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions). Obsessions often center on inflicting harmon others, personal failures, suicide, or sexual acts. Common examples of compulsions include constant handwashing, repetitive cleaning of things that are already clean, and endless checking and rechecking of locks, etc. PTSD involves enduring psychological disturbance attributed to the experience of a major traumatic event…seen after war, rape, major disasters, etc. Symptoms include re-experiencing the traumatic event in the form of nightmares and flashbacks, emotional numbing, alienation, problems in social relations, and elevated arousal, anxiety, and guilt. Generalized anxiety disorder “free-floating anxiety” Panic disorder and agoraphobia Phobic disorder Specific focus of fear Obsessive compulsive disorder Page 4 of 16 Obsessions Compulsions
- 44. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Anxietyand Panic Generalized Anxiety Disorder A continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread, apprehension, difficulties in concentration, and signsof motor tension. Panic Disorder An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurring panic attacks, feelings of impending doom or death, accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapidbreathing and dizziness. Panic Disorder An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences: v recurring panic attacks, v periods of intense fear, and v feelings of impending doom or death, v accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid heartrate and dizziness. Fears and Phobias Phobia: an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or object.
- 45. Page 5 of16 Agoraphobia A set of phobias, oftenset off by a panic attack, involving the basicfear of being away from a safe place or person. Obsessions and Compulsions Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) v An anxiety disorder in which a person feels trapped in repetitive,persistent thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive,ritualized behaviors (compulsions) designed to reduce anxiety. v Person understands that the ritual behavior is senseless but guilt mounts if not performed. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) v An anxiety disorder in which a person who has experienced a traumatic or life-threatening event has symptoms such as re-experiencing, avoidance, and increased physiological arousal. v Diagnosed only if symptoms persist for 6 months or longer.
- 46. v May immediatelyfollow event or occur later. Etiology of Anxiety Disorders Twinstudies suggest a moderate genetic predisposition to anxiety disorders. They may be more likely in people who are especially sensitive to the physiological symptoms of anxiety. Abnormalities in neurotransmitter activity at GABA synapses have been implicated in sometypes of anxiety disorders, and abnormalities in serotonin synapses have been implicated in panic and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Page 6 of 16 Many anxiety responses, especially phobias, may be caused by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning. Parents who model anxiety may promote the development of thesedisorders through observational learning. Cognitive theories hold that certain styles of thinking, overinterpreting harmless situations as threatening, for example, make somepeople more vulnerable to anxiety disorders. The
- 47. personality trait of neuroticismhas been linked to anxiety disorders, and stress appears to precipitate the onset of anxiety disorders. Biological factors Genetic predisposition, anxiety sensitivity GABA circuits in the brain Conditioning and learning Acquired through classical conditioning or observational learning Maintained through operant conditioning Cognitive factors Judgments of perceived threat Personality Neuroticism Stress—a precipitator Figure 14.6 Twinstudies of anxiety disorders Clinical Syndromes: Mood Disorders Mood disorders are a class of disorders marked by emotional disturbances of varied kinds that may spill over to physical, perceptual, social, and thought processes. Major depressive disorder is marked by profound sadness, slowed thought processes,low
- 48. self-esteem, and loss ofinterest in previous sources of pleasure. Major depression is also called unipolar depression. Research suggests that the lifetime prevalence rate of unipolar depression is between 7 and 18%. Evidence suggests that the prevalence of depression is increasing, particularly in more recent age cohorts, and that it is 2X as high in women as in men. Dysthymic disorder consists of chronic depression that is insufficient in severity to justify diagnosis of major depression. Bipolar disorder (formerly known as manic-depressive disorder) is characterized by the experience of one or more manic episodes usually accompanied by periods of depression. In a manic episode, a person’s mood becomes elevated to the pointof euphoria. Page 7 of 16 Bipolar disorder affects a little over 1%-2% of the population and is equally as common in males and females.
- 49. People are giventhe diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder when they exhibit chronic but relatively mild symptoms of bipolar disturbance. Evidence suggests genetic vulnerability to mood disorders. These disorders are accompanied by changes in neurochemical activity in the brain, particularly at norepinephrine and serotonin synapses. Cognitive models suggest that negative thinking contributes to depression. Learned helplessness and a pessimistic explanatory style have been proposed by Martin Seligman as predisposing individuals to depression. Hopelessness theory, the most recent descendant of the learned helplessness model of depression, proposes a sense of hopelessness as the “final pathway” leading to depression…not just explanatory style, but also high stress, low self- esteem, and otherfactors combine in the development of depression. Current research also implicates ruminating over one’s problems as important in the maintenance of depression, extending and amplifying individuals’ episodes of depression. Interpersonal inadequacies and poor social skills may lead to a paucity of life’s reinforcers
- 50. and frequent rejection. Stresshas also been implicated in the development of depressive disorders. Major depressive disorder Dysthymic disorder Bipolar disorder Cyclothymic disorder Figure 14.11 Episodic patterns in mood disorders Depression Major Depression A mood disorder involving disturbances in emotion (excessive sadness), behavior (loss of interest in one’s usual activities), cognition (thoughts of hopelessness), and body function (fatigue and loss of appetite). Page 8 of 16 Symptoms of Depression v Depressed mood. v Reduced interest in almost all activities. v Significant weight gain or loss, without dieting. v Sleep disturbance (insomnia or too much sleep).
- 51. v Change inmotor activity (too much or too little) . v Fatigue or loss of energy. v Feelings of worthlessness or guilt. v Reduced ability to thinkor concentrate. v Recurrent thoughts of death. Causal Factors in Depression Etiology v Genetic vulnerability v Neurochemical factors v Cognitive factors v Interpersonal roots v Precipitating stress Gender, Age, & Depression Women are about twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with depression. True around the world. Figure 10.01 from Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2002). Invitation to Psychology, 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder in which episodes of depression and mania (excessive
- 52. euphoria) occur. Page 9 of16 The Bipolar Brain Bipolar disorder can have rapidmood swings These wild changes are shown in brainactivity (below) Figure 10.02 from Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2002). Invitation to Psychology, 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Figure 14.15 Negative thinking and prediction of depression Figure 14.13 Twinstudies of mood disorders Addictive Disorders Substance Abuse
- 53. Substance Dependence No Useà Social Use à Abuseà Dependence Behaviorism and Addiction Page 10 of 16 The behavioral model is very important in addiction. v You can’tbecome addicted if you don’t use. v People use substances and are rewarded by getting high,so they use the drug again and again, and may become dependent. v Once addicted quitting leadsto withdrawal symptoms which are punishing so the person is likely to discontinue that behavior = quit quitting and relapse. Behaviorism and Addiction The biological model holds that addiction, whether to alcohol or otherdrugs is due primarily to: v biochemistry v metabolism v genetics Mostevidence comes from twin studies.
- 54. Clinical Syndromes: SomatoformDisorders Somatoform disorders are physical ailments that cannot be explained by organic conditions. They are not psychosomatic diseases, which are real physical ailments caused in part by psychological factors. (Recall from chapter 13 that psychosomatic disease as a category has fallen into disuse). Individuals with somatoform disorders are not simply faking an illness, which would be termed malingering. Somatization disorder is marked by a history of diverse physical complaints that appear to be psychological in origin. They occur mostly in women and oftencoexist with depression and anxiety disorders. Conversion disorder is characterized by a significant loss of physical function (with no apparent organic basis), usually in a single organ system…loss of vision, partial paralysis, mutism, etc…glove anesthesia, for example, is neurologically impossible. Hypochondriasis is characterized by excessive preoccupation with health concerns and incessant worry about developing physical illnesses.
- 55. Somatoform disorders oftenemergein people with highly suggestible, histrionic personalities and in people who focus excess attention on their physiological processes. They may be learned avoidance strategies,reinforcedby attention and sympathy. Somatization Disorder Conversion Disorder Hypochondriasis Etiology Reactive autonomic nervous system Personality factors Cognitive factors The sick role Page 11 of 16 Figure 14.10 Glove anesthesia Clinical Syndromes: Dissociative Disorders Dissociative disorders are a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity.
- 56. Dissociative amnesia isa sudden loss of memory for important personal information that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting. Memory loss may be for a single traumatic event or for an extended time period around the event. Dissociative fugue is when people lose their memory for their entire lives along with their sense of personal identity…forget their name, family, where they live, etc., but still know how to do math and drivea car. Dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder) involves the coexistence in one person of two or more largely complete, and usually very different, personalities. DID is related to severe emotional trauma that occurred in childhood, although this link is not unique to DID, as a history of childabuse elevates the likelihood of many disorders, especially among females. Some theorists believe that people with DID are engaging in intentional role playing to use an exotic mental illness as a face-saving excuse for their personal failings and that therapists may play a role in
- 57. their development ofthis pattern of behavior, others argue to the contrary. In a recent survey, only ¼ of American psychiatrists in the sample indicated that they felt therewas solid evidence for the scientific validity of DID. v Dissociative amnesia v Dissociative fugue v Dissociative identity disorder Dissociative Identity Disorder A controversial disorder marked by the appearance within one person of two or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits; commonly known as “Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD).” The DID Controversy Page 12 of 16 First view v MPD is common but oftenunrecognized or misdiagnosed. v The disorder starts in childhood as means of coping with severe abuse v Trauma produced a mental splitting. 2nd view
- 58. v Created throughpressure and suggestions by clinicians. v Handfuls of diagnoses to 10000 since1980. Symptoms of Schizophrenia Delusions False beliefs that oftenaccompany schizophrenia and otherpsychotic disorders. Hallucinations Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation. Grossly disorganized and inappropriate behavior. Disorganized, incoherent speech. Negative symptoms Positive Symptoms Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral excesses Examples of Positive Symptoms: v Hallucinations. v Bizarre delusions. v Incoherent speech. v Inappropriate/Disorganized behaviors. Negative Symptoms Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral deficits. Examples of Negative Symptoms: v Loss of motivation. v Emotional flatness.
- 59. v Social withdrawal. vSlowed speech or no speech. Theories of Schizophrenia Diathesis-Stress Model Genetic predispositions Structural brainabnormalities Neurotransmitter abnormalities Prenatal abnormalities Diathesis-Stress Model Needbiological (genetic vunerability) Page 13 of 16 AND Needenvironmental stress to trigger (onset in late adolescent earlyadulthood) Genetic Vulnerability to Schizophrenia The risk of developing schizophrenia (i.e., prevalence) in one’s lifetime increases as the genetic relatedness with a diagnosed schizophrenic increases. Figure 10.05 from
- 60. Wade, C., &Tavris, C. (2002). Invitation to Psychology, 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Neurotransmitter Abnormalities Many schizophrenic patients have high levels of brainactivity in brainareasserved by dopamine as well as greater numbers of particular dopamine receptors. Subtyping of Schizophrenia Currently,in the DSM-IV, thereare 4 subtypes of schizophrenia. Paranoid schizophrenia is dominated by delusions of persecution, along with delusions of grandeur. Catatonic schizophrenia is marked by striking motor disturbances, ranging from muscular rigidity to random motor activity. In disorganized schizophrenia, a particularly severe deterioration of adaptive behavior is seen…incoherence, complete social withdrawal, delusions centering on bodily functions. People who clearly have schizophrenia, but cannot be placed in any of the above subtypes, are given the diagnosis of undifferentiated schizophrenia. There are many critics of the current
- 61. subtyping system forschizophrenia. Some theorists argue that the disorder should be conceptualized along two categories, positive symptoms – behavioral excesses or peculiarities, such as hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behavior, and wild flights of ideas; and negative symptoms – behavioral deficits, such as flattened emotions, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention, and poverty of speech. 4 subtypes Page 14 of 16 v Paranoid type v Catatonic type v Disorganized type v Undifferentiated type New model for classification: Positive vs. negative symptoms Figure 14.18 The dopamine hypothesis as an explanation for schizophrenia Personality Disorders Personality disorders are a class of disorders marked by extreme, inflexible personality traitsthat cause
- 62. subjective distress orimpaired social and occupational functioning. Anxious-fearful cluster: Avoidant – excessively sensitive to potential rejection, humiliation or shame, Dependent – excessively lacking in self-reliance and self-esteem, Obsessive-compulsive – preoccupied with organization, rules, schedules, lists, and trivial details. Odd-eccentric cluster: Schizoid – defective in capacity for forming social relationships, Schizotypal – social deficits and oddities in thinking, perception, and communication, Paranoid – pervasive and unwarranted suspiciousness and mistrust. Dramatic-impulsive cluster: Histrionic – overly dramatic, tending to exaggerate expressions of emotion, Narcissistic – grandiosely self-important, lacking interpersonal empathy, Borderline – unstable in self- image, mood, and interpersonal relationships, Antisocial– chronically violating the rights of others, non- accepting of social norms, inability to form attachments. Specific personality disorders are poorly defined, and thereis much overlap among them…some theorists propose replacing the current categorical
- 63. approach with adimensional one. Page 15 of 16 Research on the etiology of personality disorders has been conducted primarily on antisocial personality disorder. Genetic vulnerability has been suggested, along with autonomic reactivity,inadequate socialization, and observational learning. Anxious-fearful cluster Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive Dramatic-impulsive cluster Histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, antisocial Odd-eccentric cluster Schizoid, schizotypal, paranoid Etiology Genetic predispositions, inadequate socialization in dysfunctional families Table 14.2 Personality Disorders AntisocialPersonality Disorder (APD) v A disorder characterized by antisocial behavior such as lying, stealing, manipulating others, and sometimes violence; and a lack of guilt, shame and empathy.
- 64. v Sometimes calledpsychopathy or sociopathy v Occurs in 3% of all males and 1% of all females. DSMCriteria for APD Musthave 3 of thesecriteria and a history of behaviors v Repeatedly break the law. v They are deceitful, using aliases and lies to con others. v They are impulsive and unable to plan ahead. v They repeatedly get into physical fights or assaults. v They showreckless disregard for own safety or that of others. v They are irresponsible, failing to meet obligations to others. Page 16 of 16 v They lack remorse for actions that harmothers. Psychological Disorders and the Law Insanity is not a diagnosis, it is a legal concept. Insanity is a legal status indicating that a person cannot be held responsible for his or her actions because of mental illness.
- 65. The M’naghten ruleholds that insanity exists when a mental disorder makes a person unable to distinguish right from wrong. Involuntary commitment occurs when people are hospitalized in psychiatric facilities against their will. Rules vary from state to state, but generally, people are subject to involuntary commitment when they are a danger to themselves or others or when they are in need of treatment (as in cases of severe disorientation). In emergency situations, psychiatrists and psychologists can authorize temporary commitment only for a period of 24-72 hours. Long-term commitments must go through the courts and are usually set up for renewable six-month periods. v Involuntary commitment v danger to self v danger to others v Unable to care for self Key Question: What are the Consequences of Labeling People? Core Concept: Ideally, accurate diagnoses lead to proper treatments, but diagnoses may also
- 66. become labels thatdepersonalize individuals and ignore the social and cultural contexts in which their problems arise. The Plea of Insanity Insanity – A legal term, not a psychological or psychiatric one, referring to a person who is unable, because of a mental disorder or defect, to conform his or her behavior to the law. PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Key Question What is Psychological Disorder? The medical model takes a “disease” view, while psychology sees psychological disorder as an interaction of biological, cognitive, social, and behavioral factors.
- 67. What is PsychologicalDisorder Three classic signs suggest severe psychological disorder • Hallucinations • Delusions • Severe affective (emotional) disturbances Part of a continuum ranging from absence of disorder to severe disorder Figure 14.2 Normality and abnormality as a continuum Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: Historical Roots Ancient World •Supernatural powers- •Possession by demons and spirits 400 B. C. •Physical causes- •Hippocrates-imbalance of humors Middle Ages •Medieval church •Demons and witchcraft 18th Century •Mental disorders are diseases of the mind •Similar to other physical diseases
- 68. •Objective causes requiringspecific treatments Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: The Psychological Model Behavioral perspective – Abnormal behaviors can be acquired through behavioral learning – operant and classical conditioning Cognitive perspective – Abnormal behaviors are influenced by mental processes – how people perceive themselves and their relations with others Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: The Psychological Model Social-cognitive-behavioral approach • Combines psychology’s 3 major perspectives • Behavior, cognition, and social/environmental factors all influence each other • Recognize the influence of biology Indicators of Abnormality Distress Maladaptiveness
- 69. Irrationality Unpredictabilty Unconventionality and undesirable behavior Indicatorsof Abnormality Distress Maladaptiveness Irrationality Unpredictabilty Unconventionality and undesirable behavior Does the individual show unusual or prolonged levels of unease or anxiety? Indicators of Abnormality Distress Maladaptiveness Irrationality
- 70. Unpredictabilty Unconventionality and undesirable behavior Doesthe person act in ways that make others fearful or interfere with his or her well- being? Indicators of Abnormality Distress Maladaptiveness Irrationality Unpredictabilty Unconventionality and undesirable behavior Does the person act or talk in ways that are irrational or incomprehensible to others? Indicators of Abnormality Distress
- 71. Maladaptiveness Irrationality Unpredictabilty Unconventionality and undesirable behavior Doesthe individual behave erratically and inconsistently at different times or from one situation to another; experiencing a loss of control? Indicators of Abnormality Distress Maladaptiveness Irrationality Unpredictabilty Unconventionality and undesirable behavior Does the person behave in ways that violate social norms? Key Question
- 72. How are PsychologicalDisorders Classified? The DSM-5, most widely used system, classifies disorders by their mental and behavioral symptoms. Overview of DSM-5 Classification System DSM-5 – (2013): • Fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders • Includes hundreds of disorders Figure 14.5 Lifetime prevalence of psychological disorders Developmental Disorders Can appear at any age, but often first seen in childhood Autism – Marked by impoverished ability to “read” other peoples, use language, and interact socially Dyslexia – A reading disability, thought by some experts to involve a brain disorder
- 73. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder– Disability involving short attention span, distractibility, and extreme difficulty in remaining inactive for any period Types of Clinical Syndromes Anxiety Disorders Mood Disorders Addictive Disorders Somatoform Disorders Dissociative Disorders Schizophrenic Disorders Anxiety, Compulsive, and Stress Disorders Generalized anxiety disorder “free-floating anxiety” Panic disorder and agoraphobia Phobic disorder Specific focus of fear Obsessive compulsive disorder Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- 74. Anxiety and Panic GeneralizedAnxiety Disorder A continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread, apprehension, difficulties in concentration, and signs of motor tension. Panic Disorder An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurring panic attacks, feelings of impending doom or death, accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid breathing and dizziness Panic Disorder An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences: • recurring panic attacks, • periods of intense fear, and • feelings of impending doom or death, • accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid heart rate and dizziness. Fears and Phobias
- 75. Phobia An exaggerated, unrealisticfear of a specific situation, activity, or object. Figure 14.7 Conditioning as an explanation for phobias Agoraphobia A set of phobias, often set off by a panic attack, involving the basic fear of being away from a safe place or person. Obsessions and Compulsions Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) An anxiety disorder in which a person feels trapped in repetitive, persistent thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive, ritualized behaviors (compulsions) designed to reduce anxiety. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) • An anxiety disorder in which a person who has experienced a traumatic or life-threatening event has symptoms such as re- experiencing, avoidance, negative alterations in cognition and mood and increased physiological arousal.
- 76. • Diagnosed onlyif symptoms persist for 6 months or longer. • May immediately follow event or occur later. Watch Videos in this Module What is PTSD? (03:26) Mental Distress of War Veterans (04:12) War Veterans and PTSD (03:31) Etiology of Anxiety Disorders Biological factors Genetic predisposition, anxiety sensitivity GABA circuits in the brain Conditioning and learning Acquired through classical conditioning or observational learning Maintained through operant conditioning Cognitive factors Judgments of perceived threat Personality Neuroticism Stress—a precipitator Figure 14.6 Twin studies of anxiety disorders
- 77. Clinical Syndromes: MoodDisorders Major depressive disorder Dysthymic disorder Bipolar disorder Cyclothymic disorder Figure 14.11 Episodic patterns in mood disorders Depression Major Depression A mood disorder involving disturbances in emotion (excessive sadness), behavior (loss of interest in one’s usual activities), cognition (thoughts of hopelessness), and body function (fatigue and loss of appetite). Symptoms of Depression • Depressed mood. • Reduced interest in almost all activities. • Significant weight gain or loss, without dieting. • Sleep disturbance (insomnia or too much sleep). • Change in motor activity (too much or too little) . • Fatigue or loss of energy. • Feelings of worthlessness or guilt. • Reduced ability to think or concentrate.
- 78. • Recurrent thoughtsof death. DSM 5 Requires 5 of these within the past 2 weeks. Notice the decreased neural activity in the depressed brain (shown by less warm colors at the front of the brain). The frontal cortex is largely responsible for active thinking and planning ahead. This lack of frontal activity would result in a depressed person having trouble concentrating was well as to many of the other symptoms of depression. Causal Factors in Depression Etiology • Genetic vulnerability • Neurochemical factors • Cognitive factors • Interpersonal roots • Precipitating stress Gender, Age, & Depression Women are about twice as likely as men
- 79. to be diagnosedwith depression. True around the world. Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder in which episodes of depression and mania (excessive euphoria) occur. Mood The Bipolar Brain Bipolar disorder can have rapid mood swings These wild changes are shown in brain activity (right) Figure 14.15 Negative thinking and prediction of depression Figure 14.13 Twin studies of mood disorders
- 80. Substance Use Disorders Behaviorismand Addiction The behavioral model is very important in addiction. • You can’t become addicted if you don’t use. • People use substances and are rewarded by getting high, so they use the drug again and again, and may become dependent. • Once addicted quitting leads to withdrawal symptoms which are punishing so the person is likely to discontinue that behavior = quit quitting and relapse. Biology and Addiction The biological model holds that addiction, whether to alcohol or other drugs is due primarily to: • biochemistry • metabolism • genetics Most evidence comes from twin studies. Clinical Syndromes: Somatoform Disorders Somatic Symptom Disorder
- 81. Conversion Disorder Illness AnxietyDisorder Etiology Reactive autonomic nervous system Personality factors Cognitive factors The sick role Figure 14.10 Glove anesthesia Clinical Syndromes: Dissociative Disorders • Dissociative amnesia • Dissociative fugue • Dissociative identity disorder Dissociative Identity Disorder A controversial disorder marked by the appearance within one person of two or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits; commonly known as “Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD).” The DID Controversy
- 82. First View • MPDis common but often unrecognized or misdiagnosed. • The disorder starts in childhood as means of coping with severe abuse • Trauma produced a mental splitting. 2nd View • Created through pressure and suggestions by clinicians. • Handfuls of diagnoses to 10000 since 1980. Symptoms of Schizophrenia Delusions False beliefs that often accompany schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Hallucinations Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation. Grossly disorganized and inappropriate behavior. Disorganized, incoherent speech. Negative symptoms Positive Symptoms Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral excesses Examples of Positive Symptoms:
- 83. • Hallucinations. • Bizarredelusions. • Incoherent speech. • Inappropriate/Disorganized behaviors. The slide below shows an MRI image of the brains of identical twins. The brain on the left belongs to the healthy twin and looks normal. The brain on the right belongs to the twin with schizophrenia. Notice the large “holes” in the center of the brain, these are called “ventricles.” Having larger ventricles means you also have less brain volume because there is more empty space inside the skull. Enlarged ventricles are particularly associated with the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, which should highlight why negative symptoms are harder to treat than positive symptoms. Medications change neurotransmitter levels, but do not dramatically change brain structure. Negative Symptoms Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral deficits. Examples of Negative Symptoms: • Loss of motivation. • Emotional flatness. • Social withdrawal. • Slowed speech or no speech.
- 84. Theories of Schizophrenia Diathesis-StressModel Need biological (genetic vunerability) AND Need environmental stress to trigger Genetic predispositions Structural brain abnormalities Neurotransmitter abnormalities Prenatal abnormalities Genetic Vulnerability to Schizophrenia The risk of developing schizophrenia (i.e., prevalence) in one’s lifetime increases as the genetic relatedness with a diagnosed schizophrenic increases. Neurotransmitter Abnormalities Many schizophrenic patients have high levels of brain activity in brain areas served by dopamine as well as greater numbers of particular dopamine receptors.
- 85. Figure 14.18 Thedopamine hypothesis as an explanation for schizophrenia Personality Disorders Anxious-fearful cluster Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive Dramatic-impulsive cluster Histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, antisocial Odd-eccentric cluster Schizoid, schizotypal, paranoid Etiology Genetic predispositions, inadequate socialization in dysfunctional families Table 14.2 Personality Disorders Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) • A disorder characterized by antisocial behavior such as lying, stealing, manipulating others, and sometimes violence; and a lack of guilt, shame and empathy. • Sometimes called psychopathy or sociopathy
- 86. • Occurs in3% of all males and 1% of all females. DSM Criteria for APD Must have 3 of these criteria and a history of behaviors • Repeatedly break the law. • They are deceitful, using aliases and lies to con others. • They are impulsive and unable to plan ahead. • They repeatedly get into physical fights or assaults. • They show reckless disregard for own safety or that of others. • They are irresponsible, failing to meet obligations to others. • They lack remorse for actions that harm others. Psychological Disorders and the Law • Involuntary commitment § Danger to self § Danger to others § Unable to care for self Key Question What are the Consequences of Labeling People? Ideally, accurate diagnoses lead to proper treatments, but diagnoses may also become labels that depersonalize individuals and
- 87. ignore the social andcultural contexts in which their problems arise. The Plea of Insanity Insanity – A legal term, not a psychological or psychiatric one, referring to a person who is unable, because of a mental disorder or defect, to conform his or her behavior to the law. Figure 14.22 The insanity defense: public perceptions and actual realities Page 1 of 7 Treatments for Psychological Disorders Key Question: What is Therapy? Core Concept: Therapy for psychological disorders takesa variety of forms, but all involve some relationship focused on improvinga person’s mental, behavioral, or social functioning v General term for any treatment process
- 88. v In psychologyand psychiatry, therapy refers to a variety of psychological and biomedical techniques aimed at dealing with mental disorders or coping with problems of living Types of Mental Health Care Professionals Therapy in Historical Context Medieval Europe-mental disorder the work of devils and demons Exorcism needed to “beat the devil” out More recently-mentally ill placed in institutions called asylums Modern Approaches to Therapy Modern approaches-abandoned demon model and abusive treatments v Therapies based on psychological and biological theories of mind and behavior § Psychological therapies oftencalled psychotherapy § Biological therapies focus on the underlying biology of the brain Key Question: How Do Psychologists Treat Mental Disorders Core Concept: Psychologists employ two main forms of treatment:
- 89. the insight therapiesand the behavioral therapies Counseling psychologist Clinical psychologist Psychiatrist Psychoanalyst Psychiatric nurse practitioner Clinical social worker Pastoral counselor Page 2 of 7 Insight Therapies Insight therapies – v Psychotherapies in which the therapist helps patients/clients change people on the inside— changing the way they thinkand feel v Aim at revealing and changing a patient’s disturbed mental processes through discussion and interpretation.
- 90. Freudian Psychoanalysis v Insighttherapies based on the assumption that psychological problems arise from tension created in the unconscious mind by forbidden impulses v Major goal:To reveal and interpret the unconscious mind’s contents Insight Therapies: PsychodynamicTherapies Psychoanalysis – v The form of psychodynamictherapy developed by Sigmund Freud v Access to unconscious material through free association v Help the patient understand the unconscious causes for symptoms v Ego blocks unconscious problems from consciousness through defense mechanisms v e.g., Transference; Repression v Analysis of transference – Analyzingand interpreting the patient’s relationship with the therapist, based on the assumption that this relationship mirrors unresolved conflicts in the patient’s past Neo-Freudian psychodynamictherapies v Therapies developed by psychodynamictheorists who embraced someof Freud’s ideas, but disagreed with others
- 91. § Treat patientsface-to-face § See patients once a week § Shift to conscious motivations Insight Therapies: Humanistic therapies Humanistic therapies – Page 3 of 7 v Based on the assumption that people have a tendency for positive growth and self actualization, which may be blocked by an unhealthy environment Client-centeredtherapy – v Emphasizes healthy psychological growth through self-actualization § Reflection of feeling – Paraphrasing client’s words to capture the emotional tone expressed Insight Therapies: Cognitive therapies Cognitive therapy – v Emphasizes rational thinking as the key to treating mental disorder v Helps patients confront the destructive thoughts
- 92. Insight Therapies: Grouptherapies Group therapy – v Psychotherapy with more than one client Self-help support groups – v Groups that provide social support and an opportunity for sharing ideasabout dealing with common problems; typically organized/run by laypersons (not professional therapists) Couples and family counseling v To learnabout relationships v Can be more effective than individual therapy with one individual at a time Behavior Therapies Behavior therapy – Any form of psychotherapy based on the principles of behavioral learning, especially operant conditioning and classical conditioning Classical Conditioning Therapies Systematic desensitization
- 93. Contingency management Aversion therapy Token economies Participant modeling Page 4 of7 Systematic desensitization – v Technique in which anxiety is extinguished by exposing the patient to an anxiety-provoking stimulus Exposure therapy – v Desensitization therapy in which patient directly confronts the anxiety-provoking stimulus (as opposed to imagining it) Classical Conditioning Therapies Aversion therapy – Involves presenting individuals with an attractive stimulus paired with unpleasant stimulation in order
- 94. to condition arepulsive reaction Operant Conditioning Therapies Contingency management – v Approach to changing behavior by altering the consequences of behaviors v Effective in numerous settings § e.g., families, schools, work, prisons Token economies – v Applied to groups (e.g. classrooms, mental hospital wards) v Involves distribution of “tokens” contingent on desired behaviors v Tokens can later be exchanged for privileges, food, or otherreinforcers Participant Modeling: An Observational-Learning Therapy Participant modeling – v Therapist demonstrates and encourages a client to imitate a desired behavior v Draws on concepts from both operant and classical conditioning Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: A Synthesis Cognitive-behavioral therapy
- 95. Page 5 of7 v Combines cognitive emphasis on thoughts with behavioral strategies that alter reinforcement contingencies v Assumes irrational self-statements cause maladaptive behavior v Seeks to help the client develop a sense of self-efficacy Evaluating the Psychological Therapies Eysenck (1952) proposed that people with nonpsychotic problems recover just as well with or without therapy Reviews of evidence sincehave shown: v Eysenckoverestimated the improvement rate in the group without therapy; v That therapy is better than no therapy; v It appears advantageous to match specific therapies with specific conditions. Key Question: How is the Biomedical Approach Used to Treat Psychological Disorders? Core Concept: Biomedical therapies seek to treat
- 96. psychological disorders bychanging the brain’s chemistry with drugs, its circuitry with surgery, or its patterns of activity with pulses of electricityor powerful magnetic fields Drug Therapy Antipsychotic drugs v E.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol, and clozapine v Usually affect dopamine pathways v May have side effects § Tardive dyskinesia – Incurable disorder of motor control resulting from long-term use of antipsychotic drugs Antidepressant Drugs v Three major categories • Tricyclic compounds (Tofranil, Elavil) • SSRIs (Prozac) • Monoamine oxidase (MOA) inhibitors, and lithium carbonate (effective against bipolar disorder) Mood Stabilizers v Lithium, Depakote - effective for bipolar disorders
- 97. Antianxiety drugs v Includebarbiturates and benzodiazepines Page 6 of 7 v May include someantidepressant drugs which work on certain anxiety disorders v Should not be used to relieve ordinary anxieties of everyday life v Should not be taken for more than a few days at a time v Should not be combined with alcohol Stimulants (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine) v Produces excitement or hyperactivity v Suppresses activity level in persons with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) v Controversy exists for use of thesestimulantsfor children § Side effects § Growth slowed § Concernfor ADHD overdiagnosis of ADHD Psychosurgery The general term for surgical intervention in the
- 98. brainto treat psychologicaldisorders v The infamous prefrontal lobotomy is no longer performed v Severing the corpus callosum, however, can reduce life-threatening seizures Brain-Stimulation Therapies Used to treat severe depression v Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) § Apply an electric current to temples briefly § Patient is put to “sleep” § Memorydeficits v Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) § High powered magnetic stimulation to the brain § Also effective for bipolar disorder v Deep brainstimulation § Surgicalimplants of a micro electrode directly in the brain § Still highly experimental Hospitalization and the Alternatives Therapeutic community v Designed to bring meaning to patients’ lives v Hospital setting to help patients cope with the world outside v Higher costs
- 99. Deinstitutionalization v Removing patients,whenever possible, from mental hospitals Page 7 of 7 Community mental health movement v Effort to deinstitutionalize mental patients and to provide therapy from outpatient clinics Person understands that the ritual behavior is senseless but guilt mounts if not performed. Key Question: How do the Psychological Therapies and Biomedical Therapies Compare? Core Concept: While a combination of psychological and medical therapies is better than either alone for treating some(but not all) mental disorders, most people who suffer from unspecified “problemsin living” are best served by psychological treatment alone.
- 100. TREATMENTS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Key Question Whatis Therapy? Therapy for psychological disorders takes a variety of forms, but all involve some relationship focused on improving a person’s mental, behavioral, or social functioning. What is Therapy • General term for any treatment process • In psychology and psychiatry, therapy refers to a variety of psychological and biomedical techniques aimed at dealing with mental disorders or coping with problems of living Modern Approaches to Therapy Counseling psychologist Clinical psychologist
- 101. Psychiatrist Psychoanalyst Psychiatric nurse practitioner Clinicalsocial worker Pastoral counselor Modern Approaches to Therapy Modern Therapies – are based on psychological and biological theories of mind and behavior. of the brain usually through medication. treatment modalities. Key Question How Do Psychologists Treat Mental Disorders? Psychologists employ two main forms of treatment: the insight
- 102. therapies and the behavioraltherapies. Insight Therapies Insight therapies – • Psychotherapies in which the therapist helps patients/clients change people on the inside— changing the way they think and feel • Aim at revealing and changing a patient’s disturbed mental processes through discussion and interpretation. Insight Therapies Freudian Psychoanalysis • Psychodynamic therapies based on the assumption that psychological problems arise from tension created in the unconscious mind by forbidden impulses • Major goal: To reveal and interpret the unconscious mind’s contents Insight Therapies: Psychodynamic Therapies
- 103. Psychoanalysis – • Theform of psychodynamic therapy developed by Sigmund Freud • Access to unconscious material through free association • Help the patient understand the unconscious causes for symptoms Insight Therapies: Psychodynamic Therapies Psychoanalysis – • Ego blocks unconscious problems from consciousness through defense mechanisms • Analysis of transference – Analyzing and interpreting the patient’s relationship with the therapist, based on the assumption that this relationship mirrors unresolved conflicts in the patient’s past Insight Therapies: Psychodynamic Therapies Neo-Freudian psychodynamic therapies • Therapies developed by psychodynamic theorists who embraced
- 104. some of Freud’sideas, but disagreed with others -to-face Insight Therapies: Humanistic Therapies Humanistic therapies – • Based on the assumption that people have a tendency for positive growth and self actualization, which may be blocked by an unhealthy environment Client-centered therapy – • Emphasizes healthy psychological growth through self- actualization (e.g. Carl Rogers ) – Paraphrasing client’s words to capture the emotional tone expressed Insight Therapies: Cognitive Therapies Cognitive therapy – • Emphasizes rational thinking as the key to treating mental disorder
- 105. and helps patientsconfront identify and change destructive thoughts • Beck’s treatment for depression to change negative views of self, situation, and future. Watch Video in this Module Depressive Thought Processes Insight and Behavioral Therapies: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy - • Combines cognitive emphasis on thoughts with behavioral strategies that alter reinforcement contingencies • Beck’s treatment for depression to change negative views of self, situation, and future. is very cognitive therapy elevate mood as a first step. Insight Therapies: Group Therapies Group therapy –
- 106. • Psychotherapy withmore than one client Self-help support groups – • Groups that provide social support and an opportunity for sharing ideas about dealing with common problems; typically organized/run by laypersons – e.g. Alcoholics Anonymous Pick the image that best represents Carl Rogers’ concept of unconditional positive regard. A B C Insight Therapies: Group Therapies Couples and family counseling • Learn about relationships • Can be more effective than individual therapy with one individual at a time Focused Behavioral Therapies Behavior therapy –
- 107. Any form ofpsychotherapy based on the principles of behavioral learning, especially operant conditioning and classical conditioning Systematic desensitization Contingency management Aversion therapy Token economies Participant modeling Classical Conditioning Therapies Systematic desensitization – • Technique to extinguish anxiety by gradually exposing the client to feared stimuli while teaching client to pair relaxation with increasing levels of fear provoking situations – e.g. for phobia Watch Videos in this Module Phobias
- 108. Classical Conditioning Therapies Exposuretherapy – • Desensitization therapy in which patient directly confronts the anxiety-provoking stimulus – e.g. for PTSD or Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Classical Conditioning Therapies Aversion therapy – Involves presenting individuals with an attractive stimulus paired with unpleasant stimulation in order to condition a repulsive reaction Operant Conditioning Therapies Contingency management – • Approach to changing behavior by altering the consequences of behaviors • Effective in numerous settings
- 109. Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) OperantConditioning Therapies Contingency management: Token economies – • Applied to groups (e.g. classrooms, mental hospital wards) • Involves distribution of “tokens” contingent on desired behaviors • Tokens can later be exchanged for privileges, food, or other reinforcers Participant Modeling: An Observational learning Therapy Participant modeling – • Therapist demonstrates and encourages a client to imitate a desired behavior • Draws on concepts from both operant and classical conditioning • e.g. therapist pets dog with dog phobic person.
- 110. Evaluating the PsychologicalTherapies Psychotherapy is effective: • Therapy is better than no therapy. • Matching specific therapies with specific conditions helps. • Client’s desire = motivation to change is very important in predicting success. • A positive relationship between therapist and client is a key to success. Key Question How is the Biomedical Approach Used to Treat Psychological Disorders? Biomedical therapies seek to treat psychological disorders by changing the brain’s chemistry with drugs, its circuitry with surgery, or its patterns of activity with pulses of electricity or powerful magnetic fields. Drug Therapy Antipsychotic drugs • E.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol, and clozapine
- 111. • Reduce dopaminetransmission, e.g. schizophrenia • May have side effects: Watch Videos in this Module Schizophrenia Drug Therapy Antidepressant drugs • Tricyclic compounds (Tofranil, Elavil) • SSRIs (Prozac, Zoloft) • Monoamine oxidase (MOA) inhibitors Antibipolar drugs/Mood stabilizers • Lithium, Depakote (anti-seizure drugs) Drug Therapy Antianxiety drugs • Include barbiturates and benzodiazepines • May include some antidepressant drugs which work on certain anxiety disorders
- 112. • Should notbe used to relieve ordinary anxieties of everyday life • Should not be taken for more than a few days at a time • Should not be combined with alcohol Drug Therapy Stimulants (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine) • Produces excitement or hyperactivity • Suppresses activity level in persons with ADHD • Controversy exists for use of these stimulants for children Psychosurgery The general term for surgical intervention in the brain to treat psychological disorders • The infamous prefrontal lobotomy is no longer performed
- 113. • Severing thecorpus callosum, however, can reduce life- threatening seizures Brain-Stimulation Therapies Used to treat severe depression • Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) • Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) rain • Deep brain stimulation Hospitalization and the Alternatives Therapeutic community
- 114. • Designed tobring meaning to patients’ lives • Hospital setting to help patients cope with the world outside world Deinstitutionalization • Removing patients, whenever possible, from mental hospitals Community mental health movement • Effort to deinstitutionalize mental patients and to provide therapy from outpatient clinics Key Question How do the Psychological Therapies and Biomedical Therapies Compare? While a combination of psychological and medical therapies is better than either alone for treating some (but not all) mental disorders, most people who suffer from unspecified “problems in living” are best served by psychological treatment alone. Topic 2
- 115. Why might itbe a good option to combine both medication and talk therapy for a typical psychological disorder such as major depressive disorder? Topic 1 Pick a psychological disorder of your choosing. Describe its symptoms and then fully discuss appropriate treatment for that disorder from two different treatment perspectives (biological, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychodynamic). For the treatment you pick, look in the files that I uploaded for treatment information.