Michael Reyes- Senior Paper

THE CONFESSIONS OF JEREMIAH: A CONTEXTUAL INTERPRETATION TO
JEREMIAH 15:10-21
A Research Paper
Presented to
Dr. Donald Vance, Theology Department
Oral Roberts University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Class
BIB 499-Senior Paper
By
Michael A. Reyes
April 2013
1

INTRODUCTION
What Are the Confessions of Jeremiah?
The Book of Jeremiah contains much biographical information that is unparalleled in any
of the other prophets. Of the fifty-two chapters, there are between five and six passages,
depending on which scholar one asks, that have been deemed the “Confessions of Jeremiah”:
11:18-23, 12:1-6, 15:10-21, 17:12-18, 18:18-23, 20:7-13.1 The Confessions are also commonly
referred to as Jeremiah’s laments. Terence Fretheim argues that the title of “Confessions” is
inaccurate. He argues that Confessions do not confess sin or faith in the way other writings do
such as Augustine’s Confessions.2 In his statement Fretheim fails to recognize that the
Confessions do in fact make declarations of faith and are known as expressions of confidence.
The Confessions are considered to be the most intimate of any of the prophetic writings. Of all
the prophets, the most is known about Jeremiah, and it is in these passages one sees the burden of
Jeremiah’s struggles with his community, family, and YHWH. There has been much debate as to
the original intent of recording the Confessions. Some scholars say that they originated in
Jeremiah’s personal diary without being expressed in his public ministry but preserved for “the
guidance and edification of future generations.”3 Other scholars suggest that they are prayers of
vindication.4 Reventlow made the suggestion that the Confessions are like the psalms in that they
2
1Samuel E. Balentine, “Jeremiah, Prophet of Prayer,” Review Expositor 78 no. 3 (June 1,
1981): 334.
2Terence Fretheim, Jeremiah (Macon, GA: Syth & Helwys, 2002), 187.
3Ellen Davis Lewin, “Arguing for Authority: A Rhetorical Study of Jeremiah 1:4-19 and
20:7-18,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32 (June 1, 1985): 110.
4Ibid., 115.

were liturgies spoken in the cult.5 Understanding the Jeremianic laments plays a major role as to
how one interprets the Book of Jeremiah.6 While the debate as to the purpose of the Confessions
has been argued throughout the years, scholars have also questioned their author.
The idea that the Jeremianic Confessions are similar to the psalms has lead some scholars
to draw similar conclusions between the Confessions and the Psalms in regards to authorship.
For example, the author for most of the psalms is an unknown individual and or later redactors,
who spoke as a representative for a people. Because of this some scholars have concluded that
the author of the Confessions was speaking to God on behalf of the people, and therefore it is not
known if it was Jeremiah or later redactors.7 Gerstenberger has suggested that the Confessions
originated from the Deuteronomists.8 It is needless to say that scholarship has been all over the
board on the issue of authorship for the Jeremianic confessions. The idea that another author,
editor, or redactor other than Jeremiah took part in writing the Confessions is unlikely. There is
nothing in the text or in the history of its preservation that should cause one to draw such a
conclusion.9 Instead it is assumed that Jeremiah is solely responsible for the composition of the
Confessions.
3
6Michael S. Moore, “The Laments in Jeremiah and 1QH: Mapping the Metaphorical
Trajectories,” In Uprooting and Planting: Essays on Jeremiah for Leslie Allen, ed. John
Goldingay (New York: T & T Clark International, 2007), 204.
7Balentine, “Jeremiah, Prophet of Prayer”, 334.
8Erhard S. Gerstenberger "Jeremiah's Complaints: Observations on Jer 15:10-21."
Journal of Biblical Literature 82, (December 1, 1963): 393-408.
9Balentine, “Jeremiah, Prophet of Prayer” 334.

The origin for the structure of Jeremiah’s laments has also been in question. Some have
suggested that Jeremiah looked to the procedures of secular organizations in order to derive the
literary structure represented in the Confessions. Jeremiah’s family history and location show
that there did not need to be any outside influence on the literary structure of Jeremiah’s laments.
Although scholars debate the authorship and origin of the Confession’s literary structure, all
scholars agree that the laments play a crucial role in understanding the Book of Jeremiah.
Most scholars state that the function of the Confessions is to validate the vocation of
Jeremiah. What most scholars fail to do is to interpret the Confessions within their historical
context, the context of Jeremiah’s life, context of chapters 11-20, and the context of the
surrounding units in Book of Jeremiah. When the appropriate context of the Confessions is taken
into consideration, one finds that the Confessions serve much more than to validate Jeremiah’s
call. Understanding Jeremiah as the author, knowing he did not look to secular organizations to
derive the lament literary structure, and interpreting the laments in their context lead one to
extrapolate a proper interpretation and significance of the Confessions.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF JEREMIAH
Jeremiah was born into a time when great turmoil and political unrest covered the land of
Israel. The Jermaniac confessions, let alone the Book of Jeremiah, cannot be properly interpreted
or understood unless a sufficient historical context is given. As stated before, the Confessions of
Jeremiah do not note the event or reason in which they were written in correlation to, making it
that much more important to understand the socioeconomic and political instability present in the
land of Israel. The land of Judah was caught in the middle of a power struggle in the Middle
East; Assyria, Egypt, and Babylon all came, conquered, and were conquered at some point
4

during Jeremiah’s era. Jeremiah lived through five major events: the fall of the Assyrian Empire,
the rise of the Babylonian Empire under the Chaldeans, the defeat of Egypt, the fall of Jerusalem,
and the destruction of the Solomonic temple.10 Looking further into these happenings gives a
more clear understanding of the literature known as the Confessions.
The Assyrian Empire
The Assyrian Empire had been in full force in the years preceding Jeremiah’s birth and
call. King Ahaz of Judah submitted to the Assyrian Empire and became a vassal in 732 BC. This
submission may have prevented Judah from falling into the fate of the Northern Kingdom;11 in
722 the empire had exiled 10 tribes of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria. By the time of
Jeremiah’s call, the Assyrian Empire’s dominance had began to diminish. Being a vassal of the
Assyrian Empire, King Ahaz allowed the worship of foreign gods and also paid homage
specifically to the Assyrian gods and king. The people of Judah did not like being a vassal of
Assyria, especially the pious, because it was considered a humiliating position.12
By the time Sennacherib was king of Assyrian (705-681 BC), King Hezekiah had already
been on the throne in Judah since 715 BC. According to the account given in 2 Kings, Hezekiah
began his reign at the age of twenty-five and ruled for twenty-nine years in Jerusalem (2 Kgs
18:2)13. He was considered to be a godly king that obeyed the voice of the Lord; he destroyed the
high places, idols, and kept the commandments of the Lord (2 Kgs 18:4, 6). Despite the
5
10Charles Lee Feinberg, Jeremiah, a Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1982),
8.
11J. A. Thompson, The Book of Jeremiah (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1980), 12.
12Ibid.
13 All Scripture references will in from NRSV unless otherwise notified.

temptation to serve the powerful Assyrian Empire, Hezekiah refused, and because of this is said
to have been the best king of Judah. Hezekiah rebelled against Sennacherib and the Assyrian
Empire in 701 BC. Sennacherib squashed the rebellion, took Jerusalem, and enforced heavy
punishment upon Judah.14 Following Hezekiah, King Manasseh undid all the good that
Hezekiah had accomplished.
King Manasseh was crowned and ruled from 687-642 BC.15 He reinstated the high
places, sacrificed his own son, worshiped foreign gods, and consulted mediums and wizards (2
Kgs 21:3-16). Manasseh is recorded as allowing more evil than King Ahaz. All of Manasseh’s
actions provoked YHWH to anger causing YHWH to prophecy disaster upon Judah. YHWH
made it clear that he was going to give Judah into the hand of their enemies because of the sins
that Manasseh had encouraged (2 Kgs 21:14). While one can be critical of the decisions made by
Manasseh, the dominance of Assyria at this time is not to be questioned. The Assyrian
dominance was exemplified in the taking of Thebes, the capital of Egypt, in 663 BC.16 Manasseh
was later exiled to Babylon by the Assyrian empire (2 Chr 33:11) but the evil that he
implemented remained in Judah with the reign of his son, Amon. Amon was just as bad as his
father but only lasted two years as king.17 Amon was assassinated, and it is assumed by some
scholars that those in Judah desiring a revolt are the most likely to have conducted the
6
14Thompson, 12.
15Michael L. Brown et al., Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Jeremiah-Ezekiel (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2010), 42.
16Thompson, The Book of Jeremiah, 12.
17Brown et al., 42.

assassination.18 Most scholars agree that Jeremiah was born around the year 646 BC, meaning
Jeremiah lived through these tumultuous times.19 Both Manasseh and Amon are documented as
being “evil in the sight of the Lord” (2 Kgs 21:20). Even though YHWH had already declared
disaster upon the land of Judah for their sins (2 Kgs 21:12), he continued to have mercy on them
through the leadership of Josiah.
Josiah’s Reformation and Rise of Babylon
Josiah’s coronation occurred at the age of eight in the year 640 BC, and he reigned for
thirty-one years (2 Kgs 22:1). While he remained a minor, Josiah spent more time learning and
being trained than he did acting as king. 2 Chronicles 34:3 says that at the age of sixteen Josiah
set himself apart to seek the Lord. Some scholars say that this is depicted to show the intent to
change the policies in Judah.20 By 627 King Ashurbanipal of Assyria had died, and it was evident
to the surrounding societies that Assyria would not regain its dominance.21 Josiah was twenty-
one years of age by this time, allowing him to take on the full responsibilities of a king. It was in
the twelfth year of his reign when he began his reformation (2 Chron 34:3). It is important to
remember that Jeremiah’s call was given one year after the reform had begun: “to whom the
word of the Lord came in the days of Josiah. . . . in the thirteenth year of his reign” (Jer 1:1-2).
Due to the decline of Assyrian power, Josiah is documented as entering into what was
known as Assyrian territory, without any resistance depicted in the biblical account (2 Chr
34:4-7). Josiah purged Judah of its high places and destroyed all carved and metal images. With
7
18Thompson, 12.
19Charles Lee Feinberg, Jeremiah, A Commentary, 8.
20Thompson, 22.
21Ibid., 18.

the dust of what he had burned, Josiah poured the ashes over the graves of those who had
sacrificed to foreign gods (2 Chr 34:3). Josiah had not only burned down the high places and
recaptured some territory, but Josiah started to make repairs to the temple as well. Josiah’s
reform was not for religious reasons alone but after years of submitting to foreign nations and
becoming a state of syncretism, the reform also served a larger role in reclaiming an identity.22 It
is strange to think that in the time when things were on the up swing that Jeremiah was called to
preach. The content of Jeremiah shows full support for Josiah’s reform.23 Some scholars say that
during Josiah’s reform, Jeremiah could be considered to be in semiretirement because there was
nothing for him to do.24 With the finding of the Book of the Law (2 Chr 34:14), Josiah’s
leadership and reform only looked that much more promising. Despite all this good that Josiah
had done, YHWH tells Josiah through Huldah the prophetess, that disaster will still fall upon
Judah for its past sins but that Josiah will see none of it (2 Chr 34:22-28).
Much about the latter years of Josiah’s reign and reform from 622-609 BC is unknown.
Many questions arise out of this. How did he keep the reform going? Did the people rebel?25 The
idea that the people of Judah did not take this reform to heart derives from the later writings of
Jeremiah and the evil acts of the kings following Josiah.26 Jeremiah was an eye witness to the
outward conformity to the law but lack of inward change in the hearts of the people of Judah.
The people of Judah and their temporal obedience to the law quickly reverted back to evil after
8
22Thompson, 20.
23Feinberg, 3.
24Clyde T. Francisco, Studies in Jeremiah (Nashville, TN: Convention Press, 1961), 9.
25Thompson, 21
26Brown et al., 43.

the death of Josiah (2 Kgs 23:29) under the jurisdiction of incapable kings. It can be said that
Jeremiah appreciated what Josiah had done because the Bible goes out of its way to mention
Jeremiah as one to mourn the death of Josiah. “Jeremiah also uttered a lament for Josiah. . .” (2
Chr 35:25). With the victory of Neco at hand and his mission being that of YHWH’s, the
discussion moves into the disaster YHWH proclaimed would be inflicted upon Judah.
The Last Kings
The kings of Judah fell into two categories, those who did good in the sight of the Lord,
and those who did evil in the eyes of the Lord. Josiah was a king who is recorded as doing good
in the sight of the Lord. The rest of the kings of Judah following Josiah can be categorized as
those who did “evil in the sight of the Lord.” King Jehoaz arose and only lasted three months
before being sent into exile by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:31-32). He implemented an anti-Egypt
and pro-Babylon policy, which lead to his quick dethroning.27 Eliakim was then chosen by
Pharaoh Neco to be the next vassal of Egypt. It was in his reign where the years of independence
that Josiah had brought were now officially over.28 Jehoiakim taxed the land everything that
Pharaoh Neco had charged Jehoaz, and for this Jehoiakim was considered to have done evil (2
Kgs 23:35). Pharaoh Neco changed Eliakim’s name to Jehoiakim, and he ruled for eleven years
(2 Kgs 23:34, 36). Jehoiakim was not as bad as Manasseh, but he did reinitiate pagan cult
practices and was loyal to the Egyptians. It was during Johiakim’s reign where Jeremiah began to
preach and gave the Temple Address.29 In the Temple Address and the surrounding passages,
9
27Feinberg, 9.
28Thompson, 22.
29Feinberg, 3.

prophets during this time were assuring the people of Judah that all was well (Jer 5:12, 7:4,
14:13); yet Jeremiah preached a contrary message.
Rise of Babylon
It was during this time that Babylon was rising to power and creeping up on Egyptian
territory. The Bible notes that Babylon took the land of the philistines in Ashkelon along the
coast of the Mediterranean (Jer 47:5-7). The exchange of power from Egypt to Babylon shifted at
the battle of Carchemish.30 With the Babylonian takeover, Jeremiah preached to Judah to not
resist. To Jeremiah Babylon was just the instrument YHWH chose to carry out His will.31 After
submitting to Babylon for three years, Jehoiakim decides to lead a revolt (2 Kgs 24:1) despite
Jeremiah’s message of submission. This revolt lead to the demise of Jehoiakim’s reign and life.
Babylon went to Jerusalem, squashed the rebellion and took all the territory that once belonged
to Egypt (2 Kgs 24:7). Jehoiakim’s son Jehoiachin, becomes king of Judah and reigns for three
months.
Though his reign was short, the Bible makes clear that in his three months, Jehoiachin did
what was evil in the sight of the Lord (2 Kgs 24:9). Nebuchadnezzar was now the leader of the
Chaldeans and lead the charge to besiege Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem, destroyed
the temple, and exiled Jehoiachin and others to Babylon in the year 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:10-16).
The deportation in 597 did not send a large quantity of people but those who left were
important.32 Jeremiah was among the poorest people in the land who remained in Jerusalem (2
Kings 24:14), enabling him to witnesses the reign of the king to follow. Zedekiah was the next
10
30Feinberg, 9.
31Ibid.
32Thompson, 24.

king to be put in place by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kgs 24:17). Zedekiah was so evil in the sight of
the Lord that it is said that the very presence of YWHW left the city of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:20).
Out of all the kings that he had witnessed up to this point, Jeremiah was the most close to
Zedekiah. Zedekiah inquired of Jeremiah on many accounts (Jer 37:17-21, 38:7-28, 21:1-7,
37:3). Although Zedekiah inquired of Jeremiah, Zedekiah never took heed to the words Jeremiah
spoke. Many prophets were saying the exile was only going to last two years, but Jeremiah spoke
of a seventy year exile (Jer 28:2-4). Against Jeremiah’s will, Zedekiah conspired against Babylon
twice: once in the fourth year of his reign and once in the ninth year of his reign. It was not until
the second effort that Zedekiah lead the revolt against Babylon. In this effort Egypt came to help,
and some in Judah spoke of relief. Once again Jeremiah spoke a word contrary to that which was
spoken by the other prophets. Jeremiah urged Zedekiah to surrender (Jer 38:14-23), but Zedekiah
did not listen and Jerusalem was severely punished in the wrath of Babylon. By the year 587 BC
there was a severe famine in the land and the walls of Jerusalem were breached (2 Kgs 25:3-4).
The temple was destroyed, the city was set afire, and many of the people who were left were
either sent to Babylon or killed; however, some remained in Judah (2 Kgs 25:8-12).
Gedaliah, the son of Ahikam, was the next vassal of Judah appointed by Nebucahdnezzar
(2 Kgs 25:22). He was later killed, and those remaining in Judah were afraid of possible
repercussions, so they fled to Egypt (2 Kgs 25:26). Jeremiah was among those who did not want
to go but was forced (Jer 42). After fleeing to Egypt not much is known about the life of
Jeremiah and the people who went with him. It can be deduced by the prophecy in Jeremiah 42
that they died in that land.
11

This is the historical context in which the Confessions of Jeremiah were birthed. His love
for his people in conjunction with the convictions YHWH had given him resulted in the deep
emotional expression seen in the scriptures. Having family and friends exiled, one’s city burned
down, and mass murders occurring would cause anyone to plead with YHWH for the people. At
the same time the continual rejection of YHWH repeated with the kings and rejection of
YHWH’s prophets caused Jeremiah to have indignation towards the people of Judah; this is why
in the Confessions Jeremiah pleads for vengeance on the people of Judah. The people of the
southern kingdom had turned their ear from YHWH and refused to repent. YHWH had made up
his mind to bring disaster upon Judah. Jeremiah was like one standing in between the train tracks
yelling, “Stop!” The message that he preached and the lifestyle required of him caused Jeremiah
to live in a world of paradox. The consequences of this are shown in the biographical data
present in the Book of Jeremiah.
JEREMIAH THE MAN
Having put the Confessions into their historical context, more insight and understanding
is obtained when put into the context of Jeremiah’s personal life. Jeremiah is the one prophet
most is known about. This is due to pericope in the Book of Jeremiah like the Confessions and
other biographical sections scattered throughout the book. Through the fifty-two chapters,
Jeremiah’s family and community were plotting against his life, Jeremiah was confined in
unsanitary conditions, and was in constant contention with YHWH. Much of Jeremiah’s struggle
came from his attempt to establish the authority given to him by YHWH. The life that Jeremiah
was called to live was an extremely ascetic one. As seen in the Confessions, the ascetic life was
reviled by Jeremiah and did not help with his social status. As depicted in his Confessions,
12

prophetic vocation had both negative and positive consequences. Learning the forms of
persecution Jeremiah went through and imagining the loneliness he experienced can only further
the understanding of the deep emotional frustration and joy communicated in the Confessions.
Arguing for Authority
Jeremiah’s job as well as the other prophets was to not only relay the message sent to
them by YHWH but to establish its authority as well; this is one of the main reasons for
Jeremiah’s struggles.33 It was in the face of opposition that Jeremiah was attempting to establish
the authority of the words that YHWH gave to him. The message that Jeremiah preached did
have the authority from YHWH, but in order to have an impact, Jeremiah also needed the
approval of the people.34 Some scholars believe that the expressions of confidence in the laments
were performed publicly because of Jeremiah’s need to assert his authority before an already
skeptical audience.35 Whether or not this is true, the point is made clear that Jeremiah was not a
respected figure among his peers and family. Continually preaching a message he was convinced
God gave him and continually having people turn and not listen was nothing short of
demoralizing. Because of his position, Jeremiah was the mediator between YHWH and the
people, but Jeremiah also had to present his own needs before YHWH.36 Sheldon Blank points
out that from the beginning of the Book of Jeremiah, Jeremiah was attempting to establish his
authority by documenting his call in chapter one.37 Jeremiah was contending with his family who
13
33Lewin, 105.
34Ibid., 108.
35Ibid., 115.
36Ibid., 107.
37Sheldon H. Blank, Jeremiah: Man and Prophet (Cincinnati, OH: Hebrew Union
College Press, 1961): 71.

was of a priestly lineage. The men of Anathoth who conspired to kill Jeremiah were not only his
family but also consisted of the priestly community that lived there. Jeremiah’s contention was
not only with family and the community but with the Church. Jeremiah was competing for
authority with those who already obtained authority through their position. This tension lead to a
life of misery for Jeremiah consisting of violence, indignity, banishment, and more.
Jeremiah 16:1-4
The ascetic life God called Jeremiah to live must be thoroughly explored before
examining the physical persecution inflicted upon Jeremiah. The Confessions reveal that
Jeremiah had mixed feelings regarding the life YHWH required him to live. At times Jeremiah
thanks YHWH, and at other times Jeremiah blames YHWH for the prophetic vocation. What are
the reasons for Jeremiah’s misery and despair? In Jeremiah 16:1-4 YHWH called Jeremiah to not
marry and have children. Jeremiah was in a hard position having to preach a harsh message that
YHWH gave him to a people who did not want to hear it. Having a wife to lean on would have
made the world of difference for Jeremiah, and his journey through this process would have been
a lot different. Family support would be the main safe haven for anyone in Jeremiah’s shoes.
Other prophets in the Bible are noted as having a family unit to depend on. Prophets such as
Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Hosea are documented as having families (Hos 1:2, Isa 8:3, Ezek 24:18, 1
Sam, 12:2, 1 Kgs 13:11, 2 Kgs 4:1).38 Not only was Jeremiah prohibited from obtaining the
family unit, but in the Jewish culture, one was considered less of a man if he did not have a wife
14
38Sheldon H. Blank, Jeremiah: Man and Prophet (Cincinnati, OH: Hebrew Union
College Press, 1961): 62.

and children. Men were expected to get married in their late teen years and have children.39 In
the rabbinic era, having children was one of the 613 laws identified in the Torah.40 From this one
can deduce the fact that Jeremiah carried a stigma for not getting married and having children.
This only added to the tension and many other forms of persecution Jeremiah received.
Jeremiah 12:6
Although Jeremiah was not allowed to start his own family, he did have a family unit
from which he came; however, it was not the safe haven Jeremiah desired and needed.
Jeremiah’s family and community are recorded as having conspired against him. “Even your
brothers and the house of your father, even they have dealt treacherously with you; they are in
full cry after you; do not believe them, though they speak friendly words to you” (Jer 12:6). Not
only was Jeremiah lonely, but he was homeless as well. His family and those who should have
been his closest communal support, those in Anathoth, had devised a plan to kill Jeremiah (Jer
11:18-19). The emphasis for their anger was the fact that Jeremiah was preaching what they
thought to be heresy in the name of YWHW (Jer 11:21).41
Jeremiah 16:5-9
To further the degree of stigma Jeremiah would have received, in Jeremiah 16:5-7 God
calls Jeremiah to not partake in funeral practices. Jeremiah was not allowed to mourn and lament
with his people (v. 5). Jeremiah was also prohibited from participating in feasts and marriages (v.
15
39Michael L. Satlow, Jewish Marriage in Antiquity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 2001), 104-105.
40David Instone-Brewer, Divorce and Remarriage in the Bible; The Social and Literary
Context (Grand Rapids, MI, W.B. Eerdmans, 2002), 91.
41John Skinner, Prophecy and Religion: Studies in the Life of Jeremiah (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1922), 110.

7). This prohibition of social events helps one to understand what is found in Jeremiah 15:17: “I
did not sit in the company of revelers, nor did I rejoice; I sat alone, because your hand was upon
me, for you had filled me with indignation.” Though some scholars would avoid reading into the
tone of a passage, Blank claims that this particular lament has a negative tone further
emphasizing Jeremiah’s aloneness.42 Jeremiah was prevented by YHWH from starting his own
family and making friends by not partaking of normal social events. It is no wonder that
Jeremiah blamed YHWH for the struggles that he endured. It was not just the loneliness that
Jeremiah had to face, but physical persecution was also inflicted upon him.
Jeremiah 37
The beginning of chapter 37 seems like Jeremiah may have made a friend in King
Zedekiah. Zedekiah’s inquiry of God’s word through Jeremiah shows Zedekiah to have some
acknowledgement of Jeremiah’s authority. Unfortunately, Zedekiah proved to be too much of a
coward to fully act on the words of Jeremiah and also failed to protect him. After the departure of
Egypt’s presence in Jerusalem when it was safe to leave, Jeremiah went to Benjamin to “receive
his portion” from among the people (v. 12). When Jeremiah was on his way out, a soldier sitting
at the gate seized Jeremiah, took him before officials, had Jeremiah flogged, and put him in
prison (v. 13-15). This was all based on the assumption that Jeremiah was leaving Jerusalem to
join the Chaldeans. Jeremiah spent many days in the dungeons and alludes to the unsanitary
conditions that had threatened his life. “Do not send me back to the house of Jonathan the
secretary, lest I die there” (v. 20). The passage does not document the life-threatening
environment of Jeremiah’s imprisonment; so one can only speculate as to what was around
16
42Sheldon H. Blank, Jeremiah: Man and Prophet, 63.

Jeremiah in the dungeon: rodents, carcasses, or feces.43 After pleading with the king Jeremiah’s
circumstances improved but not by much. He was moved to the court of the guard and was only
given a loaf of bread a day to eat (v. 21). This utopia did not last long for Jeremiah. He was later
dropped into a cistern, consisting of only mud, that was located in the court of the guard (Jer
38:6).
Jeremiah’s Last Days
The last thing known about Jeremiah is that he continued in contention with people
because of the word YHWH spoke to him. After being released from the court, Jeremiah was
given to the responsibility of Gedaliah; then Jeremiah was set free to live amongst the people at
Mizpah (Jer 40:6). After the death of Gedaliah, the remnant at Mizpah feared the Chaldeans and
desired to flee to Egypt (Jer 42:17-18). They asked Jeremiah to inquire of the Lord and declare
that their willingness to do whatever YHWH would ask of them good or bad (Jer 42:8). Jeremiah
heard from YHWH ten days later and told them not to go. The people did not believe him and
forcefully took Jeremiah and Baruch to Egypt (Jer 43:1-6). While in Egypt the people worshiped
false gods, and Jeremiah gave them a word of judgement from YHWH in which the people
refused to take heed (Jer 44). Jeremiah got in his last word to the people, and that is the last
documentation of Jeremiah contending with the people. It is not known when or exactly where
Jeremiah died.
Many years of Jeremiah’s life were spent as an outsider. The message Jeremiah preached
turned his family, the court, and the temple community against him (Jer 12:6; 36:20-26;
20:1-3).44 Having no communal support, Jeremiah preached alone. Jeremiah did not have many
17
43Ibid., 45.
44Balentine, 333.

friends nor a family to support and strengthen him. The pursuit of establishing the authority of
his word lead to much persecution. The chief priest, Pashur son of Immer, is recorded as beating
Jeremiah and putting him in the stocks because he did not like what Jeremiah prophesied (Jer
20:1-3). His first attempt to write the words YHWH had given him was only to be destroyed by
the current king (Jer 36:23). Jeremiah had to spend some time in hiding because he was banned
from the house of the Lord (Jer 36:5). Active again Jeremiah was taken, flogged, and imprisoned.
Prison and the cistern threatened Jeremiah’s existence. Forced to flee to the very country and
government he preached against, Jeremiah remained in contention with the people around him
until his very last days. It is in both the historical and personal context of Jeremiah’s life in which
the Confessions are derived. Knowing the persecution, loneliness, and misery Jeremiah endured
through his life illuminates the general nature found in the Confessions.
THE CONFESSIONS IN CONTEXT
The placement of the Confessions within the Book of Jeremiah has perplexed many
scholars. Much redaction and form criticism has been given to the Confessions, but not much has
been done on the significance of the location of the Confessions and the effects of it on their
interpretation. Alongside the placement of the Confessions within the Book of Jeremiah, it is also
important to take a look at what scholarship has had to say about the unit within which the
Confessions lay. An understanding of the units within Jeremiah 11-20 and their placement within
the context of the book change how one reads the Confessions. Within their context the pain and
agony expressed in the Jeremianic laments are not the main message being conveyed.45
Superscriptions from chapters 11-20 have been the starting criteria for the dividing of the
18
45Mark S. Smith, Laments of Jeremiah and Their Contexts: A Literary and Redactional
Study of Jeremiah 11-20 (Atlanta, GA.: Scholar Press, 1990), xx.

units. The superscriptions present in both the MT and LXX reveal that 11:1, 18:1, and 21:1 are
almost exactly the same, making it clear that they demarcate new units. Mark Smith argues that
13:1 and 16:1 were later additions to the MT to show the earlier divisions present in the original
text.46 He proposes that the units be divided as such: 11-12, 13-15, 16-17, 18-20.47 The reasoning
is not solely based on superscriptions but themes, symbols, and the fact that a prose section
immediately follows each superscription.48 With this understanding one must first take a look at
the Confessions within the context of chapters 11-20.
The unit consisting of 11-20 strays away from what is usually expected from and seen in
prophetic books.49 Prophetic books usually consist of a prophet delivering a divine word to the
people. Jeremiah 11-20 consists of the adaptations spoken of earlier: the divine speeches and
divine response. This dialogue between YHWH and Jeremiah serves as a vehicle for revealing
the breakdown of relationship between YHWH and Israel.50 The divine speeches throughout
11-20 show the people breaking the covenant (11:3,8), seeking other deities (11:12-13, 17), and
behaving worse than their fathers (11:7; 16:12). In this context the laments presented in chapters
11-20 can be seen as stressing the guilt of Jeremiah’s enemies and extending their identity to all
of Judah including people and leadership.51 In this context the laments also show Jeremiah as the
proper model for Israel. In the laments Jeremiah did not turn to other deities but instead
19
46Smith, 38.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid., 62.
50 Ibid., 61.
51 Ibid., 39.

complained, protested, and resisted the very God he fastened himself to.52 The common theme
emphasized throughout chapters 11-20 is judgement.53 The laments along with the prose sections
in chapters 11-20 argue not only for Jeremiah’s legitimacy as a prophet but also serve to reveal
the reasons for the fall of the southern kingdom.54 Within the unit of chapters 11-20 the Jermianic
laments do not only serve as defending the legitimacy of Jeremiah’s vocation but take on three
other purposes: they announce YHWH’s coming judgement, show effect of the peoples sin upon
the innocent YHWH, and make Jeremiah’s relationship with YHWH analogous with Israel’s
relationship with YHWH.55 The location of Confessions of Jeremiah within the book brings
further understanding to their significance.
While one of the functions of chapters 11-20 serves to emphasize the guilt of Jeremiah’s
enemies, it also serves to link chapters 1-10 and 21-25 in that they name the adversaries.56
O’Connor argues that chapters 2-10 have a peacemaking tone to them,57 and other scholars say
chapters 11-20 are more straightforward and mark the end of YHWH’s patience and beginning of
his wrath (Jer 11:14). The same goes for Jeremiah’s sympathy and patience for the people of
Judah. In chapters 1-10 Jeremiah identified himself with the people, but in the Confessions
Jeremiah asked YHWH to take vengeance on the people (Jer 8:18, 21-22; 10:19; 15:16). The
motif of hurt found in chapters 7-10 and 11-20 links these two units. In chapters 7-10 the hurt
20
52 Kathleen M. O’Connor, “Lamenting Back to Life,” Interpretation 1 (2008): 46.
53Smith, 67.
54Smith, 41.
55Ibid., 64.
56Ibid., xx.
57Kathleen M. O’Connor, The Confessions of Jeremiah: Their Interpretation and Role in
Chapters 1-25 (Decatur, GA: Scholars Press, 1988): 118-147.

connects Jeremiah and the people while in 11-20 the hurt separates them (15:18, 17:14). From
what has already been discussed in the historical context of Jeremiah, the people of Judah during
Jeremiah’s time experienced three invasions and the Babylonian exile. Jeremiah’s suffering and
interaction with YHWH parallels the relationship and happening between YHWH and Judah.58
Most scholars agree that the placement of the laments in the Book of Jeremiah are there
to justify Jeremiah’s prophetic mission in the face of opposition.59 The thematic and verbal
connections serve to bridge the differences between the units of Jeremiah. Through the above
examples, one sees that the placement of the Confessions disrupts a simple reading of the Book
of Jeremiah. The Jeremianic laments defend God’s choosing to bring disaster by blaming the
people but then later blaming YHWH for the happenings. Jeremiah’s theodicy at times seems to
contradict his defense of YHWH. Jeremiah’s relationship to YHWH as shown in the laments is
analogous to the relationship between YHWH and Judah. Both the prophet and YHWH wanted
to benefit the people, and both were attacked by the people.60 The Confessions in their
juxtaposition to the preceding and following units model how a relationship with YHWH can
preserver after disaster. In confronting the idea that the Confessions mainly serve as validating
Jeremiah’s call, Diamond states, “The prophet must have perceived wider significance in these
prayers in order to account for their preservation in the tradition.”61
21
58Smith, 42.
59Ibid., xix.
60Ibid., 42.
61A. R. Diamond, The Confessions of Jeremiah in Context: Scenes of Prophetic Drama
(Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), 190.

Further Significance
Although the Confessions do give an explanation for the fall of the southern kingdom and
make Jeremiah’s suffering relatable to his contemporaries, the Confessions also bring hope and
provide comfort for the people in exile and recovering from exile.62 In his essay Michael Moore
differentiates between substitutional, comparative, and interactive metaphors.63 Substitutional
metaphors are literary tropes designed to enrich speech, serving only to offer sufferers help in
speaking about their sufferings. Comparative metaphors are described as smilies. An interactive
metaphor cannot be translated into direct language, meaning it requires the sender and receiver to
share common knowledge. Moore says that the interactive metaphors presented in Jeremiah’s
laments do more than help sufferers speak about their sufferings. They create a safe place in
order for people to heal.64 While there are many metaphors present in the Confessions, the four
main metaphors throughout the laments are planting, refuge, communication, and law court.65
Jeremiah uses the metaphors to draw both positive and negative construals. In conjunction with
the healing work of the metaphors, there are expressions of hope scattered throughout the
Confessions used to bring healing to Jeremiah’s contemporaries and peoples to come (12:15;
16:14-15; 17:24-26).66 This adds to how Jeremiah’s captivities, escapes, and survival depicted in
the book also serve to bring hope to those in exile and those recovering from it.67
22
62Smith, 67.
63Moore, 235.
64Ibid., 236.
65Ibid., 245.
66Smith, 67.
67O’Connor, “Lamenting Back to Life”, 286.

LITERARY STRUCTURE OF THE CONFESSIONS
Eissfeldt’s Proposal
In 1934 Otto Eissfeldt proposed that the Jeremianic confessions were derived from the
liturgical practice of an early prophetic cult procedure. Eissfeldt claimed that in this procedure
someone would pray to the deity before a group of prophets and, while remaining in the presence
of the one who prayed, the prophets would answer the prayer. Their response was thought of as if
the deity had spoken, meaning the prophets acted as the mouthpiece for the deity. With the
Confessions Eissfeldt points out that Jeremiah prays to YHWH and then replies to himself,
acting as the mouthpiece for YHWH. Whether Jeremiah followed this pattern consciously or
unconsciously is irrelevant. Eissfeldt goes on to clarify that the Confessions are not the practice
of this cultic community, but the procedure is what they are patterned after.68 Since Eissfeldt,
there has been much research regarding the literary structure of the Jeremianic confessions.
Sheldon Blank has acknowledged Eissfeldt’s work and has concluded that while it may be
possible that Jeremiah was emulating the cultic procedure, either the cultic procedure or the
Confessions were actually derived from the proper court procedure of that time.69
Blank’s Suggestion: Narrative, Plea, and Expression of Confidence and Answer
When interacting with a judge in the court, the tactics and procedures used consisted of
narrative, plea, expression of confidence, and an answer.70 Blank goes on to explain that the
23
68Sheldon H. Blank, “The Confessions of Jeremiah and the Meaning of Prayer,” Hebrew
Union College Annual 21 (January 1948): 336.
69Ibid.
70Ibid., 332.

narratives present in the Confessions consist of the presentation of Jeremiah’s case.71 The plea
was a demand for justice and the expressions of confidence are the attempts to influence God via
praise and humility.72 The last part of the procedure consisted of the answer. Prayer is defined as
words addressed to God and God’s response to that is considered the answer.73 As pointed out by
Sheldon, the pattern, language, and tactics found in Jeremiah’s Confessions show a strong
correlation for what took place in the court.
The narrative portions in the Confessions can imply that God is not all knowing. Sheldon
makes clear in his case that the narratives are not present in the Confessions to inform YHWH
but rather to remind and win favor with YHWH.74 For example, Jeremiah 18:20 reads,
“Remember how I stood before you to speak good for them. . . .” Sheldon also suggests that
there is a psychological advantage to this. Jeremiah gets to talk it out, clarify, and analyze the
situation for himself. Though this may be true, other scholars would advocate against reading
into the psychological state of Jeremiah within the Confessions.75
A plea was a demand for justice, and within the Confessions Jeremiah’s pleas are made
both directly and indirectly.76 There are many times where Jeremiah explicitly asked for mercy,
forbearance, favor, and or vengeance.77 It must be noted that in his pleas for vengeance, Jeremiah
24
71Ibid., 338.
72Blank, “The Confessions of Jeremiah and the Meaning of Prayer,” 332.
73Ibid., 331
74Ibid., 338.
75Lewin, 115.
76Blank, 338.
77Ibid., 340.

never once asked YHWH for the power to take vengeance himself.78 “O LORD, you know;
remember me and visit me, and take vengeance for me on my persecutors” (Jer 15:15). Jeremiah
also uses rhetorical questions or accusations to implicitly plea for punishment upon his accusers.
“Why does the way of the wicked prosper? Why do all who are treacherous thrive?” (Jer 12:1).
In this passage both Jeremiah and God to know whom Jeremiah is referring.79
The expression of confidence is suggested by Sheldon to have been done in hopes of
winning a favorable judgment.80 “Your words were found, and I ate them, and your word became
to me a joy and the delight of my heart, for I am called by your name, O LORD, God of
hosts” (Jer 15:16). The surrounding verses mention the persecution of his enemies and the hate
he had for them. We can conclude that the expression of confidence served two purposes: to
encourage himself in the midst of his angst and to hopefully influence YWHW through this
declaration of admonition and praise. As with a judge, once the defendant is done making his
case, a verdict is awaited upon.
Most of the Confessions are Jeremiah speaking to YHWH, but YHWH’s response to
almost all of them is given except for the Confession found in chapter 17. The types of responses
God gives to Jeremiah vary. In some we see God granting Jeremiah’s plea (Jer 11:21-23) and in
others we find God not granting Jeremiah’s plea but rather warning him of more trials to come;
“If you have raced with men on foot, and they have wearied you, how will you compete with
horses? And if in a safe land you are so trusting, what will you do in the thicket of the
Jordan?” (Jer 12:5). Although these elements are present in the Confessions, not every element is
25
78Ibid., 341.
79Blank, 343
80Ibid., 332.

present in every Confession (i.e., God’s response). Sheldon concludes that the purpose of the
Confessions written in the manner of a court procedure were to influence YHWH in favor of
Jeremiah and against his adversaries.81 Furthermore, Sheldon explains how not only the pattern
of the Confessions emulate the law-court but how the language used in the Confessions does as
well.
Further Evidence
Throughout the Confessions are words and phrases such as “judge” and “case at law” (Jer
11:20). Many of the words used have juridical connotations to them. The terms used to refer to
God as judge are the same used in ordinary courts.82 The theological implication of God acting as
a judge is not foreign to the Bible and would not have been foreign to the people of Jeremiah’s
time. Therefore, Sheldon concludes that the literary structure of the Confessions are inherently
juridical. This is not to mean they are court cases having involved Jeremiah that have been turned
into scripture but rather have been patterned after the common juridical procedure of the day.
Although Eissfeldt and Blank present compelling cases, it is unnecessary to come up with
theoretical conclusions in which speculation is the hermeneutic proper. There is enough biblical
evidence to show where the literary structure of Jeremianic confessions were derived. Some
scholars used to believe that the Psalms were written after the time of Jeremiah and that they
followed Jeremiah’s pattern. Today many say that the psalms were in fact written before
Jeremiah’s time and that his Confessions are an adaption to the form of an individual lament.83
26
81Blank, 332.
82Ibid., 335.
83 John Bright, “Prophet’s Lament and its Answer, Jeremiah 15:10-21,” Interpretation 28
no. 1 (January, 1947): 60.

While the argument is not against the chronological order of the writings but of the literary origin
for the Confessions, it is assumed the psalms were written before the Confessions.
Structure of a Lament
As with everything else, scholars debate as to what the exact contours of an individual
lament are. Some include three criteria: address to YHWH, a lament, and complaint.84 Others
include a petition and expression of confidence.85 Brueggemann declares that the typical form of
a lament are as follows: speaker calls out to God, speaker complains to YHWH, and the speaker
usually petitions for help.86 For the purposes of this paper, the definition of an individual lament
are all inclusive. An individual lament consists of the following: the address, complaint, petition,
expression of trust/confidence, and the vow to praise.87 The address to God may also include a
petition for help. The complaint can consist of an accusation against God and or enemies. The
petition is a request for God to turn towards the suppliant, provide help, and or take vengeance
on enemies. There is no particular order necessary required in which these elements should
appear; however, most laments open with the address and end with the vow to praise. Though
this is the general structure of an lament, it is understood that not all laments consist of every
aspect. Laments are inclusive of but not obligated to have all the aspects of a lament. All scholars
however would agree that the heartbeat of every lament is the complaint.88 While consisting of
27
84Lewin, 111.
85Balentine, 334.
86Fretheim, 187.
87Dr. Jeffery Lamp, “Individual/Communal Laments,” notes from Hermeneutics class,
Oral Roberts University, Jan 2011.
88Kathleen M. O’Connor, “Lamenting Back to Life,” 36.

the same elements, laments in the Bible are categorized as either individual or communal
laments.
Carleen Mandolfo argues that differentiating between an individual lament and a
communal lament has no impact on the message it sends.89 Her point is that laments lack
specificity in regards to who has written them, making them applicable to an individual or
community. This principle is expounded upon in relation to the Confessions. Though an
adaptation is present, one must not look to or think the structure was derived from a secular
source. Both Eissfeldt and Blank do not take into consideration that Jeremiah was from a lineage
of priests. He would have known the form of a lament as represented in the psalms. Jeremiah
also had a scribe, Baruch, to help with the writing of what is found in the Book of Jeremiah (Jer
36:4). Being of a priestly lineage and having a scribe as a friend, Jeremiah would have been
familiar with the literary structure of a lament and would not have looked to a prophetic cult or
the court system to derive this. Laments found in the Psalter are clearly an address from humans
to YHWH, but the Confessions show the adaptation with the divine responses and dialogue with
YHWH.
How Jeremiah’s Confessions Adapt to the Lament
The Confessions of Jeremiah are shown to be in the structure of an individual lament
with adaptations.90 The element that differentiates normal laments from the Confessions of
Jeremiah is the divine response.91 Another element that differentiates the Jeremianic confessions
28
89Carleen Mandolfo, God in the Dock: Dialogic Tension in the Psalms of Lament
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 50.
90Bright, 60.
91Smith, 1.

from the laments found in the Psalter is the context of the surrounding prose in which the
Confessions are located. In the Jeremianic laments Jeremiah is invoking YHWH, using direct
speech of his enemies, using all the elements and creatively rearranging them.92 Like the laments
found in the Psalter, the Jeremianic laments do not explicitly state Jeremiah as their author. Like
the psalms Jeremiah’s laments are general in their nature. With the Jeremianic laments,
specificity is brought through the context and addition of the divine responses.93 The
biographical accounts found in the later parts of the book resemble the painful and daunting
experiences alluded to in the laments.94 The divine responses explicitly name the enemies of the
preceding laments. Adding to all this is the fact the the Jeremianic laments are represented in
first-person speech95 also allowing the reader to draw the conclusion that the laments are meant
to identify Jeremiah as the author.
Authorship
The discrepancy amongst scholars as to the author or authors of the Jeremianic
confessions are due to the variations of the text between the LXX and the MT. Redaction
criticism has lead scholars to the conclusion that there are undoubtedly additions to the
Confessions of Jeremiah, but they differ as to the location and quantity of additions within the
text.96 There is much obscurity in regards to the authorship and events in which the Psalms are
derived. The Psalms do not mention specific events that caused the psalmist’s reaction, nor do
29
92Smith, 2.
93Ibid., 40.
94O’Connor, “Lamenting Back to Life,” 37.
95O’Connor, “Teaching Jeremiah,” 286.
96Smith, xvii.

many of them explicitly state the author. The literature found in the Psalms is vague, lacking
concrete detail, leaving only general terminology that is relatable to any person. With the
Confessions, more concrete information can be derived. As discussed before, the authorship of
the Confessions has been in dispute without convincing evidence; Jeremiah should be considered
the author of the Confessions. Throughout the Book of Jeremiah, biographical passages are
present, giving the many forms of persecution Jeremiah experienced; this too helps put the
Confessions into context. In explaining what he believes to be the obvious, Michael Moore
argues that poetry is not handed down over time from multiple minds and authors. A poem is the
product of a given poet, “and if this is true, then a great deal of the Bible simply cannot be
profitably read as if it were an engineering schematic.”97 One can not go as far as to correlate a
Confession with a specific event of persecution in Jeremiah’s life, but having documentation of
the persecution Jeremiah experienced brings a degree of validity not found in other laments.
Jeremiah 15:10-21
The actual lament of Jeremiah 15:10-21 is found in verses 10-18. Bright makes the
argument that verses 12-13 do not fit in the passage due to an apparent illogical placing and their
similarity to 17:1.98 Geisbrecht, Rudolph, and Carroll omit vv. 13-14 and considered them
secondary due to the similarity found in 17:2-3.99 Whether or not this is true, the structure of
verses 10-21 follows under the structure of an individual lament. There is also the
interconnection of the laments and units found in chapters 11-20 through the motif of “mother”
30
97Moore, 236.
98Bright, 62.
99Joel F. Drinkard et al., World Biblical Commentary: Jeremiah 1-25 (Dallas, Texas:
Word Books, 1991), 208.

found in verse 10 connecting to the prior unit in verses 8-9.100 The structure of this unit has two
laments corresponding with two divine responses. Another issue that arises in this passage is the
designation of the speaker in verse 11-14. There are many textual and linguistic questions
surrounding verse 11.101 The MT and LXX differ in verse 11. The MT says “The LORD said”,
while the LXX reads “Amen, LORD.”102 The first word in the MT is “he said” while the first
word in the LXX is “Amen.” This results in the MT designating Lord as the speaker and the
LXX designating Jeremiah as the speaker.103 The scholars who omit vv 12-14 read this unit as
one lament and with Jeremiah as speaker in 11-14. Including 12-14 and designating YHWH as
the speaker in 11-14 the passage is then analyzed as having two laments and two divine
responses: this structure parallels the first unit chapters 11-12.104 The MT understanding is
retained for comprehension, and “the LORD” will be considered the speaker in verse 11.
V. 10: Address to God

Woe is me, my mother, that you ever bore me, a man of strife and contention to the whole

land! I have not lent, nor have I borrowed, yet all of them curse me.
Although Jeremiah cries out to his mother, the opening of Jeremiah’s lament is really a
cry against YHWH’s calling on Jeremiah’s life. Jeremiah is similar to Job in that Jeremiah feels
there is no purpose for him to continue to live (Job 3). The language here should be taken
seriously in that it emphasizes the despair but should not be taken literally in that it is suggesting
31
100Ibid.
101Brown et al., 242.
102Drinkard et al., 208.
103Ibid., 209.
104Ibid., 208

suicide.105 A correlation is found to the second lament in this unit in verse 20. Jeremiah is
lamenting of his life because of the consequences brought by his call, but verse 20 shows YHWH
reaffirming Jeremiah of the call. Jeremiah makes clear that he is innocent of the “curses” brought
against him by the whole earth. Jeremiah had not taken part in any business with the people, and
in Jeremiah’s eyes YHWH failed to protect him from strife and contention. As previously
explained Sheldon Blank took notice of the legal terminology used throughout the Confessions
of Jeremiah and from this derived his thesis. Due to the legal terminology present in verse 10
other scholars believe that Jeremiah was making reference to being in continuous legal battles
with the people of the land.106 Considering the biographical data present in the book of Jeremiah
may prove to bring a more non-speculative interpretation of Jeremiah’s contention. Verse 10
reminds us of the many times Jeremiah was taken before the king and or higher authorities for
suspicion of treason and preaching YHWH’s word. These happenings are not legal battles per se
but are encounters with judicial authorities. The lack of specificity in regards to the exact events
Jeremiah referred to, allowed the people of Israel to find parallels between their experiences and
Jeremiah’s. The history of Israel’s turmoil with the surrounding territories is analogous to
Jeremiah’s continual contention.
V. 11-14: Divine Response

he Lord said: Surely I have intervened in your life for good, surely I have imposed

enemies on you in a time of trouble and in a time of distress. Can iron and bronze break

iron from the north? Your wealth and your treasures I will give as plunder, without price,

for all your sins, throughout all your territory. I will make you serve your enemies in a

land that you do not know, for in my anger a ﬁre is kindled that shall burn forever.
32
105J. Andrew Dearman, The NIV Application Commentary: Jeremiah and Lamentations
(Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2002), 161.
106Thompson, 392.

If the preceding verse is understood as Jeremiah complaining of the people cursing him,
verse 11 would seemingly be YHWH saying, “Let me be cursed, if I have not been faithful
towards you.”107 Because of an elusive interpretation and its seemingly displacement in the unit,
many scholars discard verse 12; however, the similar question asked in 12:5 argues for the
authenticity of verse 12.108 The degree of difficulty in interpreting verse 12 stems from the lack
of certainty regarding the syntactic subject.109 Taking into consideration the preceding and
following verses, verse 12 can be understood as speaking of the overwhelming threat of Judah’s
enemies.110 Verses 12-14 also repeat the material found in 17:3-4, where judgment on the people
is made clear.111 Some also want to rid of verses 13-14 and declare them an intrusion upon the
text because they are partially a duplicate of 17:3-4.112 More recent scholarship has concluded
that these verses should be seen as significant to the total picture of the Confession.113
Verses 13-14 would consequently be understood as declaring the coming defeat and exile
of the people.114 The suffering and exile that is to come is without compensation. Even the
wealth of the people will be given to Babylon.115 This is the paradox of the Confessions. The
opening complaint indirectly accused YHWH of not protecting Jeremiah. In the following
33
107Drinkard, 210.
108Ibid.
109Dearman, 160.
111Dearman,161.
112Bright, 61.
113 Thompson, 393.
114Drinkard et al.,210.

verses, YHWH is found declaring His innocence and proclaiming His presence with Jeremiah.
This declaration of judgement and punishment from YHWH echo what Jeremiah had been
declaring to the people of Judah. YHWH’s anger as depicted in His response is such that it will
not be satisfied until the people are punished for what they have done.116 In effect the divine
response can be seen as bringing affirmation and comfort to Jeremiah. At the same time, hearing
YHWH declare the coming judgement and exile of the people may have also caused Jeremiah to
mourn.117 The opening of the second lament leads one to believe the divine response found in vv
11-14 brought affirmation instead of mourning.
V. 15: Petition

O Lord, you know; remember me and visit me, and bring down retribution for me on my

persecutors. In your forbearance do not take me away; know that on your account I suffer

insult.
Jeremiah is making a petition to YHWH. Jeremiah begins his plea by declaring that
YHWH was well aware of what Jeremiah was experiencing. Jeremiah was asking YHWH to
recapture the past and do something about it.118 The action that Jeremiah then asks is for YHWH
to take vengeance on Jeremiah’s enemies. These enemies are not just Jeremiah’s enemies, but
they are YHWH’s as well.119 Jeremiah then asks YHWH to not have patience on them. Jeremiah
is worried that if YWHW tarries, Jeremiah’s enemies will achieve the plans they had to destroy
him. If read out of context, Jeremiah 15:15 would seem to present Jeremiah in an untroubled
state. Within the proper context, it is understood that Jeremiah is not in peace but troubled by his
34
116 Ronald E. Clements, Jeremiah (Atlanta, GA: J. Knox Press, 1988), 98.
118Thompson, 393.
119Thompson, 393.

circumstances.120 Bright expounds on the idea of Jeremiah being in a sense of panic. Following
his plea, Jeremiah states, “In your forbearance, take me not away” (v. 15). The reason for this
part of the plea is timing. If God tarries in his response and does not take vengeance on those
who are after Jeremiah, then Jeremiah may lose his life.121
V. 16: Expression of Confidence

Your words were found, and I ate them, and your words became to me a joy and the

delight of my heart; for I am called by your name, O Lord, God of hosts.
Here is the expression of confidence. Verse 16 draws on the beginning of the book when
YHWH’s words touched Jeremiah’s lips (1:9). Confessing confidence in his call and in YHWH
is two-fold; Jeremiah is further declaring his innocence and protesting the evil that is coming
upon him.122 This does not mean Jeremiah did not find joy in his call. Jeremiah in fact is
reminding YHWH of how gladly he received the initial calling as well.123 The general nature of
the laments allows for the people of Israel to empathize with Jeremiah’s paradox. During the
process of the exodus, the people of Israel were grateful that YHWH but also blamed YHWH for
their lack of blessing in the wilderness. The finding of the word by Jeremiah is thought of by
some to be a literal finding.124 Regardless of the process, the emphasis made is on the joy that
was found. This verse ends with Jeremiah declaring the divine ownership YHWH has over
Jeremiah. As stated before there is a paradoxical aspect to the Confessions. In one verse Jeremiah
35
120 James Muilenberg, “A Confession of Jeremiah” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 4
no. 2 (January 1949): 17.
121Bright, 64.
124Dearman, 162.

describes the agony and in another Jeremiah describes the joy: “Your words were found, and I
ate them, and your words became to me a joy and the delight of my heart, for I am called by your
name, O Lord, God of hosts” (Jer 15:16). The expression of confidence found in this Confession
and all the others must not be overlooked for they give insight to the balance and reasoning for
Jeremiah’s ability to continue on.
V. 17-18: Complaint
I did not sit in the company of merrymaker nor did I rejoice under the weight of your

hand I sat alone, for you had ﬁlled me with indignation. Why is my pain unceasing, my

wound incurable, refusing to be healed? Truly, you are to me like a deceitful brook, like

waters that fail.
Jeremiah then moves into another complaint. In verse 17 he does so indirectly by
lamenting his call and emphasizing his innocence. Jeremiah’s prophetic vocation prevented him
from being a normal man. As expounded on earlier, Jeremiah was not allowed to marry nor
attend funerals and marriages (Jer 16:5-9). Jeremiah’s sitting alone is paralleled to that of the
lepers who sat alone outside the camp (Lev 13:46). “Jeremiah had become a social leper, and
outcast among his own people.”125 The book of Leviticus also records what YHWH expected of
the people of Israel. YHWH prevented them from being like the surrounding cultures. Although
a few verses earlier Jeremiah displayed a clear understanding of the cost and consequence of the
prophetic vocation, he still wonders why the pain is unending and the wound is incurable.126
Jeremiah then moves into a direct lament and petition against YHWH. The strong language used
here borders on being a heretical statement. To modern readers Jeremiah’s words appear to be
36

frenetic and over pessimistic.127 In 2:13 Jeremiah refers to YHWH as a fountain of living water.
Now Jeremiah compares YHWH to a deceitful wadi that goes dry in the summer and cannot be
depended upon. This may in fact be the greatest source of Jeremiah’s unceasing pain.128
Jeremiah admits in verse 17 that he was alone for the sake of the call. As made explicit
earlier, Jeremiah was lacking family support due to the call. Jeremiah did not want to be alone
but instead would have liked to sit in the assembly of mockers.129 This gives insight to the other
Confessions of Jeremiah blaming YHWH for his suffering. Here Jeremiah is lonely because of
the call.130 This continual desire and longing for friendship is the perpetual wound described in
verse 18. Jeremiah is so deep in his own agony that he turns and accuses YHWH in verse 18.
Jeremiah compares YHWH to a “deceitful brook” (v. 18). This is coming from the same man
who likened YHWH to a “fountain of living water” and compared YHWH to false gods that are
like broken cisterns not able to hold water ( Jer 2:13). In Jeremiah 15:18 YHWH is just like those
false gods, not giving help when needed the most.131 Jeremiah is accusing YHWH of deception
and treachery.132 Jeremiah was so dependent on YHWH that Jeremiah had nothing else; so there
came times when YHWH’s presence and support seemed like it was not there.133 Verse 18 is
37
127Clements, 99.
129Muilenberg, 17.
130Balentine, 333.
131Bright, 66.
132Muilenberg, 17.
133Balentine, 333.

where the individual lament ends but the Confession continues on from verse 19 where a shift
takes place134 through verse 21.
V. 19-21: Divine Response
Therefore thus says the Lord: If you turn back, I will take you back, and you shall stand

before me. If you utter what is precious, and not what is worthless, you shall serve as my

mouth. It is they who will turn to you, not you who will turn to them. And I will make

you to this people a fortiﬁed wall of bronze; they will ﬁght against you, but they shall not

prevail over you, for I am with you to save you and deliver you, says the Lord. I will

deliver you out of the hand of the wicked, and redeem you from the grasp of the ruthless.
YHWH has let Jeremiah speak and now calls Jeremiah to repentance, which plays a
major role in YHWH’s response. The root for repent is used four times in verse 19.135 YHWH
makes clear that repentance is required before Jeremiah is restored to his prophetic vocation. The
irony is found in that Jeremiah preached to people of Judah that repentance was required for
them to be restored. Muilenberg points out that throughout the book, Jeremiah calls Judah and
Israel to turn from their wicked ways, but in YHWH’s response to Jeremiah’s lament, YHWH
calls Jeremiah to turn. In this particular Confession, Jeremiah has now become too self-centered,
which is the cause for YHWH’s response. Muilenberg states, “Every egocentric human being
deceives himself. Complete insight and egocentricity can not exist side by side, which is why
insight is lessened by egocentricity.”136 Jeremiah lost focus of the reason for the prophetic
vocation he was called to, which was the people.
YHWH may be indirectly confronting Jeremiah’s desire to sit with the mockers and
revelers when he declares, “They shall turn to you but you shall not turn to them.” Jeremiah is to
38
134Muilenberg, 18.
136 Muilenberg, 18.

remain strong and speak divine words instead of worthless ones attempting to appeal to the
people. As Jeremiah drew on his call from chapter 1 in 15:16, YHWH also refers back to that
interaction to bring affirmation. Whereas Jeremiah used this expression of confidence to state his
innocence, YHWH draws on 1:18-19 to remind and affirm Jeremiah in divine protection against
his enemies. To whatever tragic happening in which this Confession was birthed, YHWH does
not say that the persecution will cease. God only promises that Jeremiah will be able to endure
by being made as a “bronze wall.” The language used here is correlated to the language used in
chapter one.137 “And I, behold, I make you this day a fortified city, and iron pillar, and bronze
walls, against the whole land, against the kings of Judah, its officials its priests, and the people of
the land. They will fight against you, but they will not prevail against you, for I am with you,
declares the Lord, to deliver you” (Jer 1:18-19).
YHWH may be making reference to 15:1 when he promises that Jeremiah will stand
before him if Jeremiah repents.138 YHWH also accompanies a twofold promise to his
admonishing Jeremiah to “utter what is precious rather than what is worthless.” YHWH will
make Jeremiah his mouthpiece and make him as a bronze wall. It is important to note that
YHWH does not offer Jeremiah a cure for the wounds or directly address the complaints.139
God’s reply implies that the prophet has not failed YHWH nor has YHWH failed the prophet.140
Jeremiah still has the same task ahead and the same provision as he had before only if he first
repents.
39
137 Bright, 72.
139Ibid.
140Dearman, 162.

CONCLUSION
Jeremiah responded to the persecution he suffered from the prophetic ministry with
confusion, bitterness, and accusations against YHWH. YHWH responded to Jeremiah with a call
to repentance and reaffirmation of Jeremiah’s call. As with the other Confessions, there is an
intimacy in Jeremiah’s relationship with YWHW that should bring liberty for all Christians.
Jeremiah felt that YHWH had become an unreliable source all while preaching to the people to
rely on YHWH. These feelings and prayers are real. One’s experiences today may be analogous
with those of Jeremiah’s. It is important to take heed that the Book of Jeremiah does not come to
a nice conclusion. The last biographical data of Jeremiah is of him living in Egypt. It is not
known when or exactly where he died. Scholars say this is intentional in that the Book of
Jeremiah and the Confessions are to bring hope to people. The Confessions are documented to
show people how to get through life with YHWH. There will be feelings of deep despair and of
great joy. The paradox is a part of the call. In the end it is how one responds. The book is left
open ended in order to give the readers the liberty to respond how they may. The message
YHWH sent to Jeremiah at the end of the Confession found in chapter 15 is the same message
YHWH was sending to the people of Judah, and it is the same message YHWH is sending today.
Repentance is required for restoration to the chosen status before YHWH.141 The outbursts in the
Confessions paradoxically serve to bring hope.142
It has been generallyunderstood that the Confessions of Jeremiah were documented to
serve the purpose of validating Jeremiah’s prophetic vocation. When looked at in the context of
the book and unit of 11-21, The Confessions of Jeremiah are shown to serve three main purpose:
40
142Clements, 100.

they announce the coming judgement of YHWH, clarify the reason for the fall of the southern
kingdom, and they reveal Jeremiah to be the proper model for Israel. When the divine responses
give name to the enemies of Jeremiah they are also emphasizing Israel’s sin as the reason for the
coming judgment. In Jeremiah’s plea is not only a petitions against his enemies but show how
YHWH’s heart had changed towards the people of Israel. Jeremiah models to Israel how to
fasten to YHWH in the midst of confusion and bitterness. Without the historical context given in
the surrounding biblical books and the biographical data throughout the Book of Jeremiah, a
proper understanding of the Confessions and their significance within the book would be lost.
Interpreting the Confessions within their appropriate contexts also makes the the interpretation
applicable today. As much as Jeremiah’s Confessions served to reveal Jeremiah as a proper role
model for Israel, his candid writings can serve to be an example to Christians today. In the midst
of political turmoil, personal persecution, and loneliness, cry out to YHWH. Be candid. Hold fast
even when it feels as though He is not present. When YHWH is finished listening to you, make
sure you listen to Him and respond appropriately.
41

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Periodicals
Balentine, Samuel E. "Jeremiah, Prophet of Prayer." Review & Expositor 78, no. 3 (June 1981):

331-344. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed January 15,

2013).
Blank, Sheldon H. "The Confessions of Jeremiah and the Meaning of Prayer." Hebrew Union

College Annual 21 (January 1948): 331-354. ATLA Religion Database with

ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed January 12, 2013).
Bright, John. "Prophet's Lament and its Answer, Jeremiah 15:10-21." Interpretation 28, no. 1

(January 1, 1974): 59-74. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost

(accessed January 15, 2013).
Gerstenberger, Erhard S. "Jeremiah's Complaints: Observations On Jeremiah 15:10-21." Journal

Of Biblical Literature 82, no. 4 (December 1963): 393-408. ATLA Religion Database

with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed January 15, 2013).
Lewin, Ellen Davis. "Arguing for Authority : A Rhetorical Study of Jeremiah 1:4-19 and

20:7-18." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament no. 32 (June 1985): 105-119.

ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed January 12, 2013).
Muilenburg, James. "A Confession of Jeremiah." Union Seminary Quarterly Review 4, no. 2

(January 1949): 15-18. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost

(accessed January 12, 2013).
O'Connor, Kathleen M. "Lamenting Back to life." Interpretation 62, no. 1 (January 2008):

34-47. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed April 15,

2013).
O'Connor, Kathleen M. "Teaching Jeremiah." Perspectives In Religious Studies 36, no. 3

(September 2009): 273-287. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost

(accessed April 15, 2013).
Books
Blank, Sheldon H.. Jeremiah: Man and Prophet. Cincinnati, OH: Hebrew Union College Press,

1961.
Brueggemann, Walter. To Pluck Up, To Tear Down: A Commentary on the Book of Jeremiah

1-25. 1988. Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1990.
Diamond, A. R. Pete. The Confessions of Jeremiah in Context: Scenes of Prophetic Drama.

Shefﬁeld, TN: JSOT Press, 1987.
42

Francisco, Clyde T.. Studies in Jeremiah. Nashville, TN: Convention Press, 1961.
Fretheim, Terence E. 2002. Jeremiah. Macon: Syth & Helwys, 2002.
Instone-Brewer, David. Divorce and Remarriage in the Bible; The Social and Literary Context.
Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2002.
Mandolfo, Carleen, God in the Dock: Dialogic Tension in the Psalms of Lament. London:

Shefﬁeld Academic Press, 2002.
Moore, Michael S. “The Laments in Jeremiah and 1QH: Mapping the Metaphorical Trajectories”

In Uprooting and Planting: Essays on Jeremiah for Leslie Allen, edited by John

Goldingay, 228-252. New York, NY: T & T Clark International, 2007.
Nicholson, Ernest W.. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah: Chapters 1-25. Cambridge, UK:

University Press, 1973.
O'Connor, Kathleen M.. The Confessions of Jeremiah: Their Interpretation and Role in Chapters

1-25. Decatur, GA: Scholars Press, 1988.
Satlow, Michael L.. Jewish Marriage in Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
2001.
Smith, George Adam. Jeremiah: by George Adam Smith. 4th ed. New York, NY: Harper &

Brothers Publishers, 1929.
Smith, Mark S. The Laments of Jeremiah and Their Contexts: A Literary and Redactional Study

of Jeremiah 11-20. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1990.
Skinner, John. 1922. Prophecy and Religion: Studies in the Life of Jeremiah. Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge University Press, 1922.
Thompson, J. A. The Book of Jeremiah. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1980.
Commentaries
Brown, Michael L., Paul Wayne Ferris, and Ralph H. Alexander. The Expositor’s Bible

Commentary: Jeremiah-Ezekiel. Edited by David E. Garland and Temper Longman. Vol.

7 Rev. ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010.
Clements, Ronald E.. Jeremiah. Atlanta, GA: J. Knox Press, 1988.
Dearmand, J. Andrew, The NIV Application Commentary: Jeremiah and Lamentations. Edited by

Terry Muck. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2002.
43

Drinkard, Joel F., Page H. Kelley, and Peter C. Craigie. Word Biblical Commentary: Jeremiah

1-25. Edited by Glenn. W. Barker, David A. Hubbard and John D. W. Watts. Vol. 26.

Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1991.
Feinberg, Charles Lee. Jeremiah, A Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Pub. House,

1982.
Thompson, J. A. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of

Jeremiah. Edited by R. K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr.. Grand Rapids, MI:

Eerdmans, 1980.
44

Michael Reyes- Senior Paper

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (19)

Similar to Michael Reyes- Senior Paper

Similar to Michael Reyes- Senior Paper (12)

Michael Reyes- Senior Paper