This document provides an introduction to geographic information systems (GIS). It discusses that GIS is a system for storing and analyzing spatial data through digital mapping and allows users to query data and perform spatial analysis. It also summarizes applications of GIS such as natural hazards assessment, habitat analysis, and location analysis as well as its connections to fields like cartography, remote sensing, geography, and spatial analysis.

1. Introduction to Geographic Information Systems
Danny M. Vaughn, Ph.D., CMS

2. Tell Me, I Forget,
Show Me, I Remember,
Involve Me, I Understand
Chinese Proverb

3. GIS - a dynamic means of conveying spatial & tabular
information through thematic layers (themes or coverages).
 Queries may be addressed in a GIS through database
management.
 New data is combined with other coverages to generate a
completely new thematic map.
 Logical & mathematical operators are employed providing
enhanced modeling capabilities for spatial analysis.
 Remote Sensing (sensing remotely) – a measure of selected
wavelengths of the EMS as an analog signal.
 The signal is transformed into discrete or digital form for
visual enhancement, interpretation, and analysis of imagery.

4. Cartography: the science, art, and technology of making
maps.
 Hard Copy Maps (traditional cartographic process) are
static, & can not be changed since they are a single printed
representation of selected spatial elements & locations
capturing spatial events at one instance in time.
 Dynamic Maps are derived from a database stored in a
computer, & are accessible for upgrade and change. The
output map product can be redesigned through an
automated process that is generally termed computer-
assisted cartography.

5. Spatial analysis – a fundamental principle of geographic inquiry.
Links associations of likeness, difference, or uniqueness of the physical,
social, and societal phenomena operating in our world.
An operational approach in spatial analysis is to identify problems that
deal with space and location throughout time.
A GIS provides the necessary platform to perform spatial analysis, and
functions as the thread linking raw data to information, and ultimately to
knowledge which may be further employed in a decision-making capacity.
Analysis is predicated around the following basic
questions:
1) What (Object)?
2) Where (Location)?
3) When (Time)?
4) How (Process)?
5) Why (Explanation)?

6. SPATIAL
ANALYSIS
(GEOMATICS)
GIS
(GPS)
CARTOGRAPHY
(GPS)
REMOTE SENSING
(GPS)

7.  Communication: a means in which thoughts, ideas, and
beliefs are developed, manipulated, analyzed, and
expressed.
 The spoken form of communication is by oral language
exchange or articulacy.
 The written language exchange is often referred to as
literacy.
 Symbolizing and dealing with relationships among
numbers, sets, magnitudes, and abstractions is termed
numeracy.
 Drawing, painting, the construction of graphs, plans, and
other diagrams is termed graphicacy which includes the
science of Cartography.

8. LITERACY ARTICULACY
GRAPHICY
FORMS OF
COMMUNICATION

9.  Geographic: Geo = Earth, Graphic = a map or drawing.
 Data - numeric values or statistics.
 Information - word-based or graphic & derived from
data elements through a process of thought.
 Information is data with explanation, or data in an
applied sense.
 When information is linked to physical, cultural, and
societal entities, it may be employed as a decision support
system.
 Data & information are processed & used to understand
& explain phenomena about our world as knowledge.

10.  GIS is a system of software & computer hardware.
 Collectively provide a mechanism for a data base
(structured and stored data).
 Consists of selected natural and/or societal processes.
 Spatial & tabular data may be input & stored (as a data
base system), captured, retrieved, updated, manipulated,
deleted, analyzed, & output in graphic and tabular format.
 As a means of identifying trends and anomalies in spatial
analysis.
 GIS: An automated system applied to geographic data.
 System: An assemblege of connected entities and
activities which interact together as a functional unit.

11. A Brief History
 GIS as a multi-layered spatial display mechanism (McHarg, Design
with Nature, 1969).
 1970’s: PC-computer-assisted techniques emerge & begin to
advance.
 1980’s: Dominated by landscape architecture, urban & regional
planning, geography, cartography, remote sensing.
 1990-beyond: Alliances with computer science, computational
geometry, computer graphics, database theory.
 1990’s: Move from the “system” emphasis to an “Open” concept or
“Interoperable Modules.” World Wide Web as a serving mechanism.

12. GIS
 Functions as a spatial data base management system (input,
manipulation, & output of spatial data).
 Combines a software and hardware interface.
 Possesses an absolute topology among and between spatial
elements.
 Provides linkages between attributes and spatial elements.
 Allows queries and spatial modeling of geo-corrected elements.
 Facilitates asking, what is where about the earth?
 Provides an ability to generate maps, charts, and tables.
 Serves as an instrument used to support a decision, solve a
spatial problem, or plan for the future.
 Functions as a scientific doctrine using concepts derived from
geography, geodesy, photogrammetry, and remote sensing.

13. GIS
GEOGRAPHY ANTHROPOLOGY
GEOLOGY
Natural Resource Assessment.
Wildlife Habitat Analysis.
Rural/Urban Planning.
Wetlands Assessment.
View Shed Analysis.
Environmental Impact.
Recreation & Tourism.
Network Analysis.
Terrain Analysis.
Agricultural Management.
Facilities Management.
Legal & Ethical Issues.
Energy & Climatic Modeling.
Marketing Analysis.
Boundary Assessment.
Time Change Analysis.
Drainage Basin Analysis.
Floodplain Management.
Mineral Exploration.
Groundwater Modeling.
Terrain Analysis.
Hazards Assessment.
Contaminant Transport.
Time Change Analysis:
Paleogeography.
Depositional Environments.
Surface Displacements.
Geology, Soils, & Climate.
Surface Processes Analysis.
Engineering Geology.
Water Quality.
Trade and Migration Routes.
Multiple Occupancy Uses.
Local Settlement Patterns:
Proximity Analysis.
Pattern Analysis.
Density Analysis.
Site Analysis for Modern
Land Use Practices.
Prehistoric Land Use.
Materials Distribution.
Distance Modeling.
Agricultural Practices.
Hunting & Gathering Areas.
Time Change Analysis &
Paleo-gentrification of sites.

14. Remote Sensing
 Involves multi-spectral scanning sensors mounted on board
aircraft or satellite platforms that sense remotely.
 Remote sensing operates on the premise that earth surface
features can be spectrally segregated.
 Remote sensing employs traditional image identification,
interpretation, verification, and analysis.
 Remote sensing also employs computer-assisted, digital
image processing techniques.
 When geo-corrected, remotely-sensed, spatial data may be
integrated into a GIS for advanced spatial analysis.

15. REMOTE SENSING
GEOGRAPHY ANTHROPOLOGY
GEOLOGY
Terrain Analysis:
Slope/Aspect Modeling.
Drainage Basin Modeling.
Hazards Assessment.
Surface Processes Analysis.
Environmental Assessment.
Surface Classifications:
Riparian.
Forestry.
Soil Associations.
Archaeological.
Wetland Studies.
Urban/Regional Planning.
Soft Copy Photogrammetry:
Orthophoto Mapping.
Orthophoto Mosaicing.
Bio-Geologic Assessment.
Mineral Exploration.
Terrain Analysis:
Slope/Aspect Modeling.
Drainage Basin Modeling.
Hazards Assessment.
Environmental Assessment:
Flood Plain Assessment.
Catastrophic Modeling:
Earthquake Activity.
Volcanic Activity.
Mass Movements.
Waste Water Assessment.
Image Interpretation:
Photogeology.
Multispectral Geology.
Surface Anomalies Through:
Microwave Analysis.
Near Infra-red Analysis.
Thermal Analysis.
Aerial Photo Analysis.
Site Distribution Analysis.
Classification Studies:
Tribal/Landuse Mapping.
Habitat Analysis.
Shifting Tribal Patterns.
Vegetation/Site Analysis.
Geomorphic/Site Analysis.
Drainage/Site Analysis.
Soil/Site Associations.
Integrated GIS Modeling.

16. Cartography
Functions:
 As a technology employed to design and construct maps.
 As an art-form used to convey graphical information.
 As a science following a doctrine of design rules and
laws from geography, photogrammetry, and geodesy.
 As a means of conveying higher order graphical
information derived from a GIS or remotely sensed
data.

17. CARTOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY ANTHROPOLOGY
GEOLOGY
Thematic Mapping:
Population Distributions.
Geomorphic Patterns.
Climate Patterns.
Classification Maps:
Equal Interval.
Standard Deviation.
Equal Area.
Natural Breaks.
Terrain Mapping:
Shaded Relief.
Block Diagrams.
Statistical Surfaces.
Choropleth Maps.
Isarithmic Maps.
Cadastral Maps.
Terrain Mapping:
Shaded Relief.
Block Diagrams.
Statistical Surfaces.
Isarithmic Maps:
Topography.
Gravity Surveys.
Structure.
Mapping Surface Geology.
Mapping Glacial Deposits.
Mapping Tectonic Activity.
Sub-surface 3-D Maps.
Choropleth Maps:
Elevation Ranges.
Slope/Aspect Ranges.
Rock Units.
Prehistoric Settlement Maps.
Proximity to Resources Maps.
Site Distribution Maps.
Map of Migration Patterns.
3-D Maps of Excavated Sites.
Maps of Cultural Diversity.
Grid Mapping Techniques.
Site Classification Maps.
Hunting & Gathering Maps.
Trade/Transportation Maps.
Isarithmic Maps of a Site.
Spectral Anomaly Maps.
Spatial Anomaly Maps.
Artifact Distribution Maps.
Multiple Occupied Sites.
Land Use Change.

18. Geography and GIS
Science – basically fragmented into “content-oriented”
themes.
Biological
Chemical
Physical
Geography – its spatial orientation cuts across all scientific
disciplines.
 Geography is predominately methods and perspectives.
 Understanding processes through spatial & temporal
associations of real-world entities.
GIS – a major mechanism in linking society with Geography
through spatial awareness.

19. The Geography in GIS
Mapping Spatial Elements
 Location of points, lines, areas, &
volumes in space.
By a Cartesian grid.
By a coordinate system.
Mathematical transformations.
 Direction, scale, & distance.
Spatial Distribution
 Pattern.
 Density.
 Concentration.
Systematic Spatial Order
 Regional concept.
 Physical/human.
 Human/physical.
Spatial Interaction
 Agglomeration.
 Accessibility.
 Connectivity.
 Central domination modeling.
Spatial Transition
 Change in occupancy over time.
 Diffusion, transfer or movement of
object entities (people, ideas, etc.).
Landscape
 Natural features.
 Cultural.

20. Specialization’s in GIS
Data Acquisition Specialist GIS Project Manager
 Hunts GIS data through web  Plans the GIS project.
searches and other agencies.  Determines data and software needs.
 Integrates data types.  Orchestrates the GIS project.
 Formats, archives, and operates  Monitors the time and budget.
within data standards.
GIS Technician GIS Consultant
 Builds GIS databases.  Independent or company employed.
 Inputs maps, images, & tabular  Often possesses a science background.
data.  Must have a strong GIS foundation.
 Translates requests into operations.  A problem solver.
 Prepares results of models and  Must be analytical in thought.
queries.
System Support (Pseudo GIS)
 Hardware and Software Facilitation.
 Network Administration.

21. Natural Hazards Assessment by: Distance/time analysis for handicapped
Slope/aspect modeling. students.
Drainage basin analysis. Scale, distance, and relief displacement.
Modeling mass movements. Analyzing georeferencing algorithms.
Flow path modeling. Analyzing classification algorithms.
Water quality analysis. Forecasting avalanche potential.
Habitat site selection.
Assessing wilderness sites.
Foraging habitat analysis. Other Research in Earth System’s Science:
Catastrophic flood assessment.
Location Analysis: Assessment of a prograding delta.
Locating optimal park sites. Use of terrain modeling algorithms in
Modeling trail locations. drainage basin analysis.
Locating a school site. Geoarchaeology.
Determining optimal locations
for septic tanks.
MY RESEARCH
Computer-Assisted Spatial Analysis