Hmong English Bilingualism

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PaChia Vang
Hmong English Bilingualism:
A Study and Personal Journey to Exploring My
Language
Joanne Cavallaro
Committee Lead/Advisor
Susan Bosher
Committee Member
Pa Der Vang
Committee Member

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A Ripple Effect: The Process of My Project
My desire to learn about current attitudes toward Hmong and English
bilingualism among Hmong Americans was a ripple effect. One thing led to another. It
all started with a paper I wrote for Language as Power, a class that examined how
language is used as another tool of privilege in our society. My paper for the class "Bad
Hmong: My Connection to Non-Accent and Standard Language Myths," discussed my
personal struggles with lacking a traditional Hmong accent and proper Hmong language
speaking skills, such as using proper vocabulary as well as forming sentences correctly.
When my paper was graded and returned to me, I was encouraged by my professor to
further research my topic. She pointed out how fascinating my approach was, not only
that it was a personal account, but rarely had Hmong language been an area of study in
academia.
This small paper led to my class investigative project, which was the capstone
assignment for the course. For this project, I completed a literature review, generated
questions and interviewed three Hmong American young adults on Hmong-English
bilingualism. My respondents and I discussed code switching among Hmong and
English speaking communities, attitudes toward being non-fluent in Hmong, and
preserving Hmong oral language. Questions I asked my respondents can be found in
Appendix A of this paper. These questions sparked enriching discussions that turned into
long conversations, igniting my aspiration to explore both Hmong and English oral
language. I knew from the responses received and the experiences my respondents
disclosed to me in our interviews, Hmong-English bilingualism was not a common
subject of discussion in our community. Yet my respondents had many things to say.

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I was determined to hear more stories and opinions about speaking Hmong and
English in a predominantly English-speaking country. My investigative project served as
a test trial to my questions and the subject itself. Despite finishing my Language as
Power project, I knew that my exploration was incomplete. I decided to continue my
research by pursuing an English Honors project on the topic.
After months of completing an Institutional Review Board (IRB) application and
training, I was given permission to pursue my project. I wanted to speak with second and
third generation Hmong Americans between the ages of 16-30. Respondents would have
some exposure to speaking both Hmong and English. I intended on interviewing 10
men/boys and 10 women/girls. Originally, I planned on including the responses from my
previous study in Language as Power. Thinking that I would have included respondents
from that project, I decided to only recruit 9 men/boys and 8 women/girls.
Recruitment
I first recruited participants through Facebook. I posted a status on my personal
page and asked family and friends to share the post (see Appendix B). The post entailed
a personal statement on my experience with Hmong-English bilingualism and a synopsis
on the intent of my project. I also mentioned that interviews would be held either in
person or through Skype. Within a few days, I received about 25 responses. I ended up
turning down many of these respondents. Almost all of the respondents that expressed
interest were women over the age of 30, which was out of my age range. I had one male
respondent that was 35 years old that expressed interest in my project. At the time, I
lacked men that were interested in participating so I decided to keep him on board for the
project. I thought it was fair to interview one other person that was over the age of 30. I

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chose to speak with one of the first women that expressed interest, but was over 30 years
old. I found that including language stories and attitudes of people that were over my age
range was an advantage. This was an opportunity for me to explore even more unique
experiences. All respondents were current residents of Minnesota; however, some were
born and raised in other states.
My biggest challenge was recruiting male respondents. Only two men expressed
interest in participating in my project. I wanted to speak with at least 10. I contacted
some male friends and family I knew through instant messaging. I expressed my
shortage of male participants to a friend. My friend reached out to some of her male
colleagues for my project. After several months of recruitment, I was able to recruit 10
male respondents and 10 female respondents for my project. All of my respondents are
second generation Hmong.
Interviews
In the month of January, I interviewed thirteen Hmong Americans ranging from
16-35 years old. I was unable to interview four of the respondents I had recruited.
Getting in touch became slightly difficult so I stuck to only speaking to 7 men and 8
women. I had a strong pool of respondents that were different from one another. My
respondents ranged from the places they were born, went to school and worked.
The duration of interviews ranged from 45 minutes to 2 hours. The average
length of one interview was about 1 hour. The interview questions I asked my
respondents were a mix of questions I used in my investigative project and new questions
I formed specifically for this project. I organized all questions into five categories:
Questions

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Category 1: Growing up bilingual
The first set of questions I asked pertained to the experiences of growing up. My
intent with this set of questions was to gain a general understanding of where my
respondents fell on Hmong language comprehension and overall language use at home.
1. On a scale 1-5, how much Hmong can you understand? (1- do not understand
Hmong, 5-understand Hmong perfectly)
2. Growing up, which language did you hear spoken more often at home? Who did you
speak English/Hmong with?
3. Have you ever been part of ELL (English Language Learning) or ESL (English as a
Second Language)? What advantages/disadvantages come along with being in ELL and
ESL?
Category 2: Past and Present Experiences with Hmong
Questions in this section address personal accounts of past experiences and
incidents that respondents faced. This particular set of questions was an echo of the set
of questions I had for my investigative project.
4. Can you recall a time when a Hmong elder commented on your speaking English
rather than Hmong?
 What happened?
 How did you feel?
 What was the situation/topic?
5. Can you describe a time when you were corrected forthe way you spoke Hmong? What was
your reaction?
6. Can you think of a time when you felt unsure about the way you speak eitherHmong or
English?
7. Can you think of a time when you felt you were being judged forspeaking Hmong in an
English setting?
 How about English in a Hmong setting?

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Category 3: The Future of Hmong Oral Language
This set of questions requires respondents to reflect on their ability to speak
Hmong and challenges respondents to think where their Hmong speaking abilities stand
among those in their generation. There is a perception that younger generations of
Hmong are no longer able to speak Hmong. I asked respondents about their thoughts on
this perception.
8. Do you have a hard time speaking Hmong? Is it difficult? Easy? Why?
 Do you think this is common among Hmong Americansyour age? Why might that be so?
 Why do you think that younger generationsof Hmong have a hard time speaking Hmong?
9. Is it important to teach younger generations Hmong? Why?
 If you hope to teach future generations of family and friends how to speak
Hmong, how do you plan on teaching them?
Category 4: Thinking Like a Linguist
My intent for these questions was to see how respondents perceive themselves and others
as Hmong and English speakers. I wanted to get an idea of who they perceived to be
excellent language speakers.
10. Who comes to mind when you think of speaking the best Hmong? Worst Hmong?
 Best English? Worst English?
11. How would you describe the way you speak Hmong (broken, mixed/Hmonglish)? English?
How about those around you?
 How about yourability of understanding Hmong?
Category 5: General Questions
As questions to wrap up our conversations, I asked respondents specific questions geared
toward their current use of Hmong oral language.
12. Which language do you speak more often?
13. When do you speak Hmong? With who?

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 When is it important to speak Hmong? When is it important to speak English?
14. How important is it to you that you speak Hmong? Why?
15. On a scale 1-5, how would you rate how bilingual you are? (1-not bilingual at all, 5-very
bilingual)
Respondents
Only one of the thirteen respondents I interviewed was not born in the United
States. I learned that Pheng, a male acquaintance of mine who is a student from
Augsburg College, was born in Thailand and migrated to the United States in 2005.
Pheng admitted to having a hard time answering my questions. I asked him about his
thoughts on our interview and he said "I think this was not the interview for me." I felt
terrible that he said that, yet I knew he was right. I know that someone born in Laos and
Thailand would have different perceptions on bilingualism than someone born in the
United States. Pheng was not told from a young age to speak English at school and
Hmong at home. He didn't grow up in a society where English was the dominant oral
language that was often heard everywhere. From the television screen to all the teachers
at school, English was heard, spoken and enforced. Despite the difficulty that Pheng
faced while answering my questions, I valued the conversation we had. I enjoyed
discussing the differences in our language experiences.
All the conversations I shared with my respondents were unique. Reading my
notes and listening to all thirteen recordings of my respondents was a gratifying yet
overwhelming task. Of the two languages I wanted to explore for this project, I found
that Hmong was the one we tended to focus our discussions on the most. All of my
respondents had fascinating ideas and things to say. Sharing every single conversation
would be a heavy and lengthy endeavor. I chose to share six of the thirteen stories for
this paper. I include all responses to some of my questions in Appendix G to Appendix

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H. Some of the stories I share represent common themes I found among all interviews.
Some stories are exceptional incidents that I wanted to be recorded on paper. These
stories needed to be told.
Here are some current attitudes on Hmong- English bilingualism among second
generation Hmong Americans. These are their language stories.
~
Language Stories
Melodie
Melodie is one of my youngest respondents. She is in her first year at St.
Catherine University and is an intern for East Metro Integration (EMID), a youth
program-mentoring. I first met Melodie months prior to our interview at a Hmong
Women's networking and book fundraising event. Being the youngest at this event, she
stood out from many of the professional women I met. Another thing that stood out
about Melodie was her voice. She spoke English with no trace of a Hmong accent. It
sounded as if English was her native language. We discussed accents in our interview
and she declared, "When I speak Hmong, I have a terrible American accent.” She found
that her Hmong was impacted by her accent,
When I speak English, I am really proud I don’t have an accent. I feel bad,
because if I did have an accent that would mean I can speak Hmong better. But at
the same time, I don’t want to have an accent when I speak English.
Melodie made an interesting point and I understood what she meant. I hear Hmong
Americans ridiculed for speaking Hmong because of their accent. What Melodie was
telling me was that if she had a Hmong accent she would speak better Hmong and having
a Hmong accent would mean having a foreign accent when speaking English. This might

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have been what she was implying. Accent has no impact on whether or not one can
speak a language better. What can make Hmong a challenging language to speak is
having the inability to make certain sounds. I know I have a hard time saying “nqa” or
“carry” in Hmong; I am unable to do the tongue placement.
According to the Hmong youth I interviewed, English is the preferred language at
home and at school. Hmong youth are choosing to communicate in English, even to
Hmong elderly. The result is Hmong elderly often telling youth to speak in Hmong.
Melodie told me about frustrating incidents where she would be told to speak Hmong
rather than English. In response to my question, "Can you recall a time when a Hmong
elder commented on your speaking English rather than Hmong?" she told me about times
where her grandmother intervened during her conversations to speak Hmong,
It gets so frustrating. Cause I will be telling this really awesome ‘Oh my gosh
guess what happened to me today’ And I will be talking to my mom and my
grandma will be right next to her and say 'Why are you speaking in English?
Speak in Hmong so I can understand.’ I have to slow down and think about what
to say.
I could relate to Melodie’s frustration with having to communicate with older Hmong
relatives. I myself had similar experiences to Melodie where I was told to speak Hmong
while explaining something in English. There is a particular relative in my life who does
this to me all the time whenever I speak to him. Melodie and I agreed that when we told
stories in English, we felt most comfortable because we knew the words to describe every
detail in our story. Melodie commented that when she was trying to explain an
experience in Hmong, she struggled at times, because she wouldn't know how to say
something in Hmong. Not knowing terms usually stalled her ability to share a story.

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Val
Val is a St. Catherine University student, hailing from Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
One of the many stories that stood out to me was one Val told me about the time her
parents decided to transform their living room into a Hmong oral language classroom.
Val described this experience as a phase her parents went through, a phase where they
desired their children to speak the language of their ancestors:
I remember us going to the store with my mom and she went to Office Max. She
bought this whiteboard and whiteboard markers and an eraser. I don’t know if
she found the Hmong Alphabet online or something, but she printed out handouts
for us. She was trying to teach us Hmong words and Hmong alphabet.
These language lessons ran for a few weeks. Like many phases, the teachings came to a
halt and never occurred again. At the time, Val and her siblings believed her parents’
attempts at teaching Hmong were ineffective. After revisiting this experience with me,
Val now acknowledges it as an important childhood memory: “I remember a lot of
laughter and it was a lot of fun, actually. But it was also like a failure, because we really
didn’t take anything away from it. But I remember it and my parents tried.”
Val told me another story pertaining to speaking Hmong. This one impacted
Val’s sense of identity:
In middle school, I felt judged because through my eighth grade year, out of the
whole school I was the only Hmong person. Not only that, I was the only Asian
person in the whole school. It was predominantly Hispanic. Whenever my mom
was on campus or something and I would speak Hmong, I felt judged, because all
eyes were on me and I would be the center of everyone's focus. As a Hmong
middle-schooler, I didn't want to fully accept my Hmong heritage and that
included the language. That kind of gave me a dislike for the language and the
culture.

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Melodie told me about a similar past school experience in elementary school
when a Hmong child spoke on the phone in Hmong. While the child was speaking in
their native tongue, Melodie observed and saw that many children were looking. It was
from this experience that she realized her language was noticeable. From this moment
on, she despised whenever she spoke Hmong on the phone in her classroom,
When I was younger, I would hate hate talking on the phone in front of my white
friends. Whenever my grandmother would call or a relative and I had to speak
Hmong, it was super embarrassing like ‘Oh my gosh I am speaking my own
language in front of them.’ “ I shouldn’t be talking on the phone in Hmong
because everyone will be looking at me like they are looking at her.”
Heather and Seng's Stories
Heather and Seng were the mother and son duo of my project. Heather saw my
Facebook recruitment post and immediately claimed interest. She volunteered her three
children for the interview as well. I politely told her that I could not interview her two
youngest, given that they were both out of my age range. I was fascinated to hear
thoughts on bilingualism from both ends of the spectrum. Heather and Seng embodied
these ends.
One of my oldest respondents, Heather is 35 years old and was born in St. Paul.
It was not until she entered preschool that she started speaking more English at home
with her nine siblings. Many of my respondents shared this experience of speaking less
Hmong once transitioning into school. Hmong language is not incorporated in American
curriculum and students are only able to speak their language when they are outside of
class. Once Heather, reached her teenage years, she found that she cared less about
speaking Hmong,

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I didn’t really care so much for being Hmong. I didn’t speak a lot of Hmong and
I got a lot of slack for that too. People would be like ‘Oh speak Hmong’ and I
would be like “why? We live in America, we can speak English if we want to.’ I
guess that as I got older and I had kids, I think it is important to speak Hmong
with your kids, because I’m slowly losing it too.
As a mother of three, Heather is trying to get her children to speak Hmong at
home. She and her husband dedicate time at home to speaking Hmong. Sometimes they
request their children to carry on conversations in Hmong for at least one hour. Even
with having this exercise at home, Heather is still noticing that her children are struggling
with speaking Hmong. She notices that as her kids are getting older, they are distancing
themselves from speaking Hmong, "We speak Hmong at home. But we speak Hmong
and they answer back in English. They have to really think in order to carry a
conversation in Hmong."
When asked about a time where he was corrected on speaking Hmong, Seng
mentioned that his mother was the one person that corrected him the most. With his
parents enforcing Hmong oral conversations, Seng is speaking Hmong more often now
than when he was a child. He told me that he was most comfortable with English, given
that it was the language he was most exposed to while growing up, “I grew up around
more English than Hmong. I heard more English than I heard Hmong so that’s why I
seem to be struggling in Hmong.” I reflect back to Heather’s comments to not caring
about speaking Hmong.
Benito
Benito was one of the male recruits my friend introduced me to. Benito is a 27
year old adult care coordinator who was born into a Hmong-speaking household. In fact,

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his parents speak no English. His father speaks the green Hmong dialect and his mother
speaks the white Hmong dialect. Benito is able to speak both White and Green Hmong
dialects and he found it challenging to answer my first question: “On a scale 1-5, how
much Hmong can you understand?” Before giving me his score, he asked me which
dialect I was referring to. He replied that the question was a challenging one to answer
given that Hmong has different dialects.
If there was a key concept that was emphasized the most in our discussion, it was
the significance and impact of language use in the home. A child’s language speaking
skills were just as determined at home as in the schools, "It really starts with the parents
nowadays. It really starts at home." On using mother tongue at home "If you don't set
boundaries and structures, you lose it." Benito was not the only one among my
respondents that felt that the language spoken by parents as home played an impact on
one’s speaking abilities.
A common thread I found among the majority of my respondents was the impact
of language use with parents and at home. All respondents that felt passionate about
Hmong oral language preservation mentioned the importance of parents speaking and
teaching Hmong in the household. I asked all respondents which language was spoken
often in their household while growing up. Six of my respondents grew up in a dominant
Hmong speaking household. Four of my respondents grew up with English being the
dominant language spoken at home. Three of my respondents replied that there was a
"good mix" of Hmong and English spoken in their households, while growing up.
Timmy

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Timmy is an acquaintance of mine who I informally asked to participate in my
project. Similar tome, Timmy was raised in a predominantly English-speaking
household. He explained to me that his parents taught some Hmong to his siblings and
him, “Just the basics. Greeting and counting. Simple stuff. And of course, when they
were angry, they would speak that angry Hmong language.” Although Timmy was
exposed to the language, he declared: “I can’t speak it because it was never enforced.”
He was raised in Edgerton and Forrest Lake, Minnesota, cities with few Hmong residents.
In our interview, Timmy told me that his inability to speak Hmong cost him relationships.
He would meet parents of Hmong girls that he was either seeing or was acquainted with.
These parents opposed his involvement with their daughters and they often implied this
to him: "They were shocked I didn't know Hmong. And they basically said 'well, you
can't speak to my daughter anymore, because you don't know how to speak Hmong.' "If
you two ever become serious then I don't want to become part of you guys."
My Story
There are ghosts in our lives. Who are these ghosts? We recognize deceased
family members, former lovers and friends we have lost touch with as our ghosts.
Exactly “what” can be our ghosts? What are the substances that cannot be seen on the
surface, but are lurking about just as the atoms that make up humans and every single
object around us? We all have a ghost that swishes, swashes and swirls in our mind.
This ghost may reappear from time to time or become a permanent resident that will
haunt us for eternity.

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I see my native Hmong language as a ghost in my life. I am a 21 year old,
second-generation Hmong American woman who is fortunate yet conflicted for having
two of everything. I have and am exposed to two different cultures, each with its own
set of values, beliefs, traditions and expectations. Some of these things are easy to
manage and intermix. Others seem to be at odds with one another, making it hard to
juggle both. I find that having two languages correlates with the latter. My inability to
speak Hmong and my guilt for that inability are like these swishes, swashes and swirls.
The more I immerse myself in the western culture and environment, the less I hear my
language and the more hovering there is from my self-guilt, family, Hmong friends and
Hmong community.
I can feel a knot tightening in my stomach when I am spoken to in a language that
I cannot easily reply to. Hmong is that language for me. What hurts the most is that this
language is mine. When I say I cannot speak Hmong or that I have a hard time speaking
it, I can read from the facial expressions of both Hmong and non-Hmong I encounter,
“Why can’t you just learn?” I ask myself the same question. Instead of going around my
community and lamenting that I cannot speak Hmong, I should just learn how to speak it.
This isn’t easy, however it is not easy to pick up a language, especially when the majority
of your society does not speak that language.
Hmong language is vital to Hmong culture and identity. Living in America,
however, makes it difficult to speak the language since it is not spoken, audible or seen
all the time. Everywhere I go, I hear English. English is the language that is spoken on
television and seen on billboards and road signs. I go to restaurants where the items on
the menu are written in English, and the servers will promote their specials in English. I

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have to attend English-speaking institutions and pass standardized tests written only in
English. If I cannot pass these exams, I have to repeat my academic year or, worst of all,
I cannot graduate from school. Both my parents have been students and young educators
in our American school system. They knew that in order for their children to succeed,
their children needed strong English speaking, writing, reading and comprehension skills.
I hear many stories of people trying to make peace with their ghosts. I find that
conducting research and studying Hmong-English bilingualism is my way of making
amends with the Hmong language. By no means does this research and these interviews
replace my inability to speak Hmong, but I have had the opportunity to explore
something that has been personal and problematic to me since I have had the ability to
speak. In my final semester at St. Catherine University, I have taken on the will to learn
more about my language and its current use among other Hmong-Americans. I am
curious to know how other Hmong Americans feel about speaking both languages. What
are their views on the future usage of this language? Am I the only one who is haunted by
my own mother tongue and trying to make peace with it? Through this narrative work, I
hope that we can learn and explore how language impacts us.
This was not an easy paper write or project to pursue. My advisor jokes around
with me that there is a reason why scholars don't research topics that are personal to
them. Topics that are closely tied to one’s identity are difficult to unwind on paper. I
couldn't agree with this more. What turned out to be an ambitious research project
became a spiritual journey. I was connecting to my ghost.

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Appendix A
Questions from Hmong American Bilingualism: Struggles of Mastering Two Languages
1. Growing up, which language did you hear spoken more often in your house.
2. Has there ever been a time when a Hmong elder lectured you for speaking
English rather than Hmong?
3. Do you believe that there is such a thing as standard Hmong? Standard
English” Explain.
4. Has there ever been a time when you were being corrected for speaking
“improper” English?
5. Has there ever been a time when you felt uncomfortable about the way you
speak?
6. Why do you think that younger generations of Hmong have a hard time
speaking Hmong? Do you have a hard time? Why?
7. Do you hope to teach your nieces, nephews or children how to speak Hmong?
How do you hope to teach them?
8. Has there ever been a time when you were being discriminated for speaking
Hmong? English?
9. Ever been in ELL? ESL?
10. How would you describe the way you speak? How about those around you as
well?

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Appendix B
Facebook Recruitment Post
I Want You!
Hello family and friends,
It's my final year at St. Kate's! Crazy how time has flown by. I have many exciting things to look
forward to during my concluding year at school. Among these things, is a special senior project that
concerns a topic that has been an interest of mine for quite sometime and it's something that plays a huge
part in my life: bilingualism.
As some of you may or may not know, I barely speak Hmong. English has always been my primary
language. I have a hard time speaking Hmong and I'm uncomfortable with saying that I am fluent in
speaking it. Last semester, I took a class that explored language's impact in our daily lives. Whether
you're speaking a dialect, foreign language or have an accent, you are displaying part of your identity
and you are being judged. People can get a sense of who you are through the way you speak.
Through this class, I reflected on the way I spoke and I became curious on how my family, Hmong
friends and other Hmong Americans feel about speaking Hmong and English. Personally, I have a hard
time being bilingual, but I want to know if others do as well.
What better way to explore Hmong-English bilingualism in the United States than to interview bilingual
Hmong Americans. If you speak Hmong and English, I want to hear your language story. What are your
experiences with speaking both languages. What do you think is the future of Hmong oral language in
America?
I notice that there is a lack of scholarly information on current views on the usage of Hmong and
English among today's Hmong Americans. Not only is there a lack of current information, but there are
few Hmong scholars that are studying this subject. I notice that much of the research concerning Hmong
language use is conducted by non-Hmong researchers.
Definitely share/forward this post to people that you think may be interested on taking part in my
interview project. If you would like to take part or have any questions concerning my project, please
private message me. Once you contact me about participating in my project, I will contact you to set up
an interview and give you a consent form to fill out.
Your choice to not participate will not impact your relationship with me in any way. If you do
participate, your responses will be confidential and your responses will not impact our relationship or
how I think about you.
I am also more than happy to tell you more about my project if you just want to talk about it!!!

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Appendix C
Consent Form
Hmong-English Bilingualism in the United States
INFORMATION AND CONSENT FORM
Introduction:
You are invited to participate in a research study investigating perceptions of Hmong–English
bilingualism among Hmong-Americans in the United States. This study is being conducted by
PaChia Vang, an undergraduate student at St. Catherine University under the supervision of
Joanne Cavallaro, a faculty member in the Department of English. You were selected as a
possible participant in this research because you are a second or third generation Hmong
American speaking the following languages: Hmong and English. Current information on how
younger generations of Hmong Americans view the use of both languages is limited. Please read
this form and ask questions before you agree to be in the study.
Background Information:
The purpose of this study is to explore how Hmong American youth and early adults feel about
mastering two languages: Hmong and English. Overall, how does it feelbeing bilingual in
today's society?
These are questions that I hope to ask today's second and third generation Hmong Americans, in
order to get a better understanding of where Hmong Americans currently stand with bilingualism.
Procedures:
If you decide to participate, you will be asked to read and complete an information and consent
form (this form). The form may be completed manually or electronically on a word document.
Once a completed form is submitted in person or electronically to me, I will schedule an
interview with you as soon as possible. Interviews will be held either in person or through Skype.
Phone interviews are not a choice since I would like to record our interview, with your
permission. I would like to schedule interviews at least one week in advance.
Interviews could take approximately an hour and a half. I plan to meet with you only once.
Risks ofbeing in the study:
There are minimal to no risks of being part of this study. As a Hmong second generation, I know
that discussing and sharing personal experiences on speaking Hmong over English (or vice versa)
and preserving Hmong language is uncommon. Some people may even feel uncomfortable and
sensitive about opening up on this topic.
If you decide not to continue the interview or wish to have your interview withdrawn, I will
terminate the interview and destroy your information and consent form.
There are no direct benefits to you for participating in this research.
Confidentiality:
Any information obtained in connection with this research study that can be identified with you
will be disclosed only with your permission; your interviews will be kept confidential. In any
written reports or publications, no one will be identified or identifiable.

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Audio recordings of your interview will be stored on my laptop. Only my faculty advisor and I
will have access to them. Once I have completed my project, I will delete the audio recordings
from my laptop.
Voluntary nature of the study:
Participation in this research study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will
not affect your future relations with me or St. Catherine University in any way. If you decide to
participate, you are free to stop at any time without affecting these relationships.
Contacts and questions:
If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me at 651-815-2990 and email
at pvang2@stkate.edu. You may ask questions now, or if you have any additional questions later,
the faculty advisor, Joanne Cavallaro will be happy to answer them. You may contact her at
651-690-6867 or jcavallaro@stkate.edu. If you have other questions or concerns regarding the
study and would like to talk to someone other than the researcher(s),you may also contact Dr.
John Schmitt, Chair of the St. Catherine University Institutional Review Board, at (651) 690-7739
or jsschmitt@stkate.edu.
You may keep a copy of this form for your records.
Statement ofConsent:
You are making a decision whether or not to participate. Your signature indicates that you have
read this information and your questions have been answered. Even after signing this form,
please know that you may withdraw from your interview.
______________________________________________________________________________
I consent to participate in the study by being interviewed. I agree to having my interview audio
recorded.
_______________________________________________________________________
Signature of Participant Date
_______________________________________________________________________
Signature of Investigator Date

Vang21
Appendix D
Parental consent form
INFORMATION AND PARENT CONSENT FORM
Introduction:
Your child has been invited to participate in a research study investigating perceptions of
Hmong –English bilingualism among Hmong-Americans in the United States. This study
is being conducted by PaChia Vang, an undergraduate student at St. Catherine University
under the supervision of Joanne Cavallaro, a faculty member in the Department of
English. There will be about 20 people participating in this study. Your child was
selected as a possible participant in this research because they are a second or third
generation Hmong American speaking the following languages: Hmong and English.
Current information on how younger generations of Hmong Americans view the use of
both languages is limited. Please read this form and ask questions before you agree to be
in the study.
The purpose of this study is to explore how Hmong American youth and early adults feel
about mastering two languages: Hmong and English. Overall, how does it feel being
bilingual in today's society?
These are questions that I hope to ask today's second and third generation Hmong
Americans, in order to get a better understanding of where Hmong Americans currently
stand with bilingualism.
Procedures:
If you decide to participate, your child will be asked to read and complete an information
and consent form (this form). The form may be completed manually or electronically on
a word document. Once a completed form is submitted in person or electronically to me,
I will schedule an interview with your child as soon as possible. Interviews will be held
either in person or through Skype. Phone interviews are not a choice since I would like
to record our interview, with the permission of you and your child. I would like to
schedule interviews at least one week in advance.
Interviews could take approximately an hour and a half. I plan to meet with your child
only once.
Risks of being in the study:
There are minimal to no risks of being part of this study. As a Hmong second generation,
I know that discussing and sharing personal experiences on speaking Hmong over
English (or vice versa) and preserving Hmong language is uncommon. Some people may
even feel uncomfortable and sensitive about opening up on this topic.

Vang22
If you do not want your child to participate or if your child decides not to continue the
interview/ wish to have their interview withdrawn, I will terminate the interview and
destroy their information and consent form. This will not impact your relationship or
child's relationship with me or St. Catherine University.
There are no direct benefits to you or your child for participating in this research.
Confidentiality:
Any information obtained in connection with this research study that can be identified
with your child will be disclosed only with their permission; their interviews will be kept
confidential. In any written reports or publications, no one will be identified or
identifiable.
Audio recordings of your child's interview will be stored on my laptop, which is
password protected. Only my faculty advisor and I will have access to them. Once I
have completed my project, I will delete the audio recordings from my laptop. This will
not impact your relationship or child's relationship with me or St. Catherine University.
Participation in this research study is voluntary. Your child's decision whether or not to
participate will not affect their future relations with me or St. Catherine University in any
way. If your child decides to participate, they are free to stop at any time without
affecting these relationships.
If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me at 651-815-2990 and
email at pvang2@stkate.edu. You may ask questions now, or if you have any additional
questions later, the faculty advisor, Joanne Cavallaro will be happy to answer them. You
may contact her at 651-690-6867 or jcavallaro@stkate.edu. If you have other questions
or concerns regarding the study and would like to talk to someone other than the
researcher(s), you may also contact Dr. John Schmitt, Chair of the St. Catherine
University Institutional Review Board, at (651) 690-7739 or jsschmitt@stkate.edu.
Statement of Consent:
You are making a decision whether or not to participate. Your signature indicates that
you have read this information and your questions have been answered. Even after
signing this form, please know that you may withdraw your child from their interview.
________________________________________________________________________
I consent to participate in the study by being interviewed. I agree to have my interview
audio recorded.
_______________________________________________________________________

Vang23
_______________________________________________________________________
Signature of Parent, Legal Guardian, or Witness Date
_______________________________________________________________________

Vang24
Appendix E
Student assent form
INFORMATION AND CHILD ASSENT FORM
Introduction:
You are invited to participate in a research study investigating perceptions of Hmong –
English bilingualism among Hmong-Americans in the United States. This study is being
conducted by PaChia Vang, an undergraduate student at St. Catherine University under
the supervision of Joanne Cavallaro, a faculty member in the Department of English.
There will be about 20 people participating in this study. You were selected as a possible
participant in this research because you are a second or third generation Hmong
American speaking the following languages: Hmong and English. Current information
on how younger generations of Hmong Americans view the use of both languages is
limited. Please read this form and ask questions before you agree to be in the study.
The purpose of this study is to explore how Hmong American youth and early adults feel
about mastering two languages: Hmong and English. Overall, how does it feel being
bilingual in today's society?
These are questions that I hope to ask today's second and third generation Hmong
Americans, in order to get a better understanding of where Hmong Americans currently
stand with bilingualism.
Procedures:
If you decide to participate, you will be asked to read and complete an information and
consent form (this form). The form may be completed manually or electronically on a
word document. Once a completed form is submitted in person or electronically to me, I
will schedule an interview with you as soon as possible. Interviews will be held either in
person or through Skype. Phone interviews are not a choice since I would like to record
our interview, with your permission. I would like to schedule interviews at least one
week in advance.
Interviews could take approximately an hour and a half. I plan to meet with you only
once.
Risks of being in the study:
There are minimal to no risks of being part of this study. As a Hmong second generation,
I know that discussing and sharing personal experiences on speaking Hmong over
English (or vice versa) and preserving Hmong language is uncommon. Some people may
even feel uncomfortable and sensitive about opening up on this topic.

Vang25
If you decide not to continue the interview or wish to have your interview withdrawn, I
will terminate the interview and destroy your information, parent consent form and assent
form. This will not impact your relationship with me or St. Catherine University.
There are no direct benefits to you for participating in this research.
Confidentiality:
Any information obtained in connection with this research study that can be identified
with you will be disclosed only with your permission; your interviews will be kept
confidential. In any written reports or publications, no one will be identified or
identifiable.
Audio recordings of your interview will be stored on my laptop, which is password
protected. Only my faculty advisor and I will have access to them. Once I have
completed my project, I will delete the audio recordings from my laptop.
Participation in this research study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to
participate will not affect your future relations with me or St. Catherine University in any
way. If you decide to participate, you are free to stop at any time without affecting these
relationships.
If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me at 651-815-2990 and
email at pvang2@stkate.edu. You may ask questions now, or if you have any additional
questions later, the faculty advisor, Joanne Cavallaro will be happy to answer them. You
may contact her at 651-690-6867 or jcavallaro@stkate.edu. If you have other questions
or concerns regarding the study and would like to talk to someone other than the
researcher(s), you may also contact Dr. John Schmitt, Chair of the St. Catherine
University Institutional Review Board, at (651) 690-7739 or jsschmitt@stkate.edu.
Statement of Consent:
You are making a decision whether or not to participate. Your signature indicates that
you have read this information and your questions have been answered. Even after
signing this form, please know that you may withdraw from your interview.
________________________________________________________________________
I consent to participate in the study by being interviewed. I agree to have my interview
audio recorded.
_______________________________________________________________________

Vang26
_______________________________________________________________________

Vang27
Appendix F
List of Respondents
P1. Tou- 21 years old, born in St. Paul, full-time student at Winona State University
P2. Timmy- 22 years old, born in Maplewood, student at St. PaulCollege, union plumber
P3. Marcus- 35 years old, born in Memphis, Tennessee,resides in St. Paul, Minnesota,
graduate of Metro State University, academic advisor at Metro State University
P4. Benito- 27 years old, born in St. Paul, some school at Century College, adult care
coordinator
P5. Pheng- 20 years old, born in Thailand, student and resident advisor at Augsburg
University
P6. Melodie- 18 years old, born in Dallas, Texas,full-time student at St. Catherine
University, intern for East Metro Integration (EMID)
P7. Heather- 35 years old, born in St. Paul, graduate of Bemidji State University, Medical
technician
P8. Seng - 16 years old, Maplewood, MN, student at Park Center Brooklyn Park
P9. Kasey:16 years old, St. Paul, student at North High school
P10. Maisee - 19 years old, Winona, full-time student at St. Catherine University
P11. Val- 20 years old, Milwaukee, WI, full-time student at St. Catherine University,
eye-clinic info center,Hmong translator at her internship
P12. Viola- 25 years old, St. Paul, MN, graduate of St. Catherine University, mental
health worker
P13. Thomas- 25 years old, Fresno, CA, Direct TV technician

Vang28
Appendix G
Quantitative Data (Question 1 and 15)
Question 1: On a scale 1-5, how much Hmong can you understand? (1-do not understand
Hmong, 5- understand Hmong perfectly)
 P1: 3.5
 P2: 4
 P3: 4.5
 P4: 4
 P5: 5
 P6: 4
 P7: 5
 P8: 3
 P9: 4
 P10: 2
 P11: 4.5
 P12: 2
 P13: 2
Average score: 3.65
Question 15: On scale 1-5, how would you rate how bilingual you are? (1-not bilingual
at all, 5-very bilingual)
 P1: 4
 P2: 1
 P3: 4.5
 P4: 3.5
 P5: 4
 P6: 2
 P7: 5
 P8: 2
 P9: 2.5
 P10: 1
 P11: 4.5
 P12: 2
 P13: 2.5
Average score: 2.96

Vang29
Appendix H
Responses to Question 10: Who comes to mind when you think of speaking the best Hmong?
Worst Hmong?
 Best English? Worst English?
“Best Hmong”
 P1: Hmong elders in 90s
 P2: Thugs/gangsters, people in the cities
 P3: Our parents, our elders
 P4: Grandparents
 P5: My parents
 P6: Anyone on my dad’s side, those living in Laos and Thailand for half of their
life
 P7: Older generation- parents’ age and beyond
 P8: Older generation, Demariah from Dad’s side half Hmong and half black
nephew
 P9: My parents
 P10: Grandmother
 P11: Elderly, 50’s +l (understanding metaphors)
 P12: Hmong voice actors, other Hmong entertainers (songwriters, singers and
actors)
 P13: Anybody that does Hmong weddings/traditional Hmong ceremonies – they
don’t stutter or speak their mind
“Worst Hmong”
 P1: Younger generation, me
 P2: People living far from the cities like me; people that don’t hangout or affiliate
themselves with other Hmong people
 P3: All kids these days- school children, elementary-middle school
 P4: Kids – raised to speak baby Hmong talk
 P5: Ten year old brother, kids younger
 P6: People growing up in United States, growing up in non-Hmong environment
 P7: Younger generation- kids twenty and younger
 P8: younger generation- my age (16 yrs old) It just seems this way
 P9: Me
 P10: My cousin- can’t understand or read Hmong; he doesn’t speak it at all
 P11: Pre-teens and teens born in US
 P12: Those who can’t speak Hmong, but try
 P13: Definitely kids with other interests other than Hmong culture
“Best English”
 P1: NA
 P2: People living far from Hmong people

Vang30
 P3: Everybody in middle school and high school
 P4: My teachers- Europeans
 P5: My teachers and professors – they are white and it’s their language
 P6: grew up isolated from Hmong community
 P7: Younger generation, my generation
 P8: Younger generation
 P9: Basically anyone that can speak English/those fluent in it
 P10: My fiancé
 P11: Hmong applying to college
 P12: My friend majoring in Communications- she validates my attempt to speak
English better
 P13: Hmong women that are motivated and educated- women have more to prove
“Worst English”
 P1: NA
 P2: People in the cities
 P3: Our elders 60’s-80’s; trouble for them to enunciate
 P4: No such thing as “worst English”
 P5: older generations- parents and grandparents
 P6: People that need a translator
 P7: Older generation like my dad
 P8: Older generation 60s to older, it depends
 P9: Grandma maybe
 P10: My mom
 P11: Hmong 50+ and newly immigrated Hmong (not all cases)
 P12: ESL
 P13: Fresh off the Boat- haven’t had time to adapt and care about education

Hmong English Bilingualism

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