The document describes gradient echo pulse sequences. It discusses how gradients are used for spatial encoding by dephasing and rephasing magnetic moments. It explains slice selection, frequency encoding, and phase encoding. It describes how gradient echo sequences differ from spin echo by using variable flip angles and gradients instead of RF pulses to generate echoes. It discusses various gradient echo techniques including coherent, spoiled, and balanced sequences. It provides details on sequence parameters and how they control T1, T2, and PD weightings.

1. GRADIENT ECHO PULSE
SEQUENCE
SWASTIKSAGARPOUDEL
IOM,MMC
1

2. Spatial encoding
 Introduction;
 As we know that a RF excitation pulse is applied which creates
magnetization in transverse plane and puts individual magnetic
moments of hydrogen nuclei into phase.
 A signal or voltage is induced in the receiver coil in a transverse
plane .
 All the magnetic moments precesses at the same frequency as all
the signals oscillate at the same frequency so the system cannot
spatially locate it.
2

3.  To produce an image , the MRI system must calculate how
much signal is coming from each three-dimensional
location in the patient and this location is called as voxel.
 The simplest way to do this is to first locate a slice and then
to locate signal at each two-dimensional location within it
and this location is called as pixel.
 This process is called spatial encoding and it is performed
by gradients.
3

4. GRADIENT COILS
 These coils are used to create variation in the magnetic field which
are in a way superimposed over the main magnetic field.
 There are three sets of coils to produce field with changing strength
in x , y and z axes.
 Gradient coil provide linear gradation or slope of the magnetic
field strength from one end of the solenoid to the other end.
 This either increases or decreases the magnetic field on either side
of isocentre.
4

5. 5

6. Mechanism of gradients
 According to faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when
current is passed through the gradient coil, a magnetic field is
induced around it.
 And this magnetic fields is superimposed onto the main magnetic
field in such a way that the magnetic field strength along the axis
of the gradient is sloped.
 The gradient coil has a three terminals one at a middle and two at
each end of the coil.
 Current is passed through these terminal into the gradient coil
which determines the gradients polarity.
 This polarity is determined by which end of the gradient magnetic
field is higher than Bº and which is lower.
6

7.  It is determined by the current flowing, if the current flows
clockwise through the coil , then the magnetic field around the coil
adds to Bº. This increases the magnetic field strength relative to Bº
and if the current flows anticlockwise through the coil, then the
magnetic field around the coil subtracts from Bº. This decreases the
magnetic field strength relative to Bº.
 The middle of the axis of the gradient remains at the field strength
of the main magnetic field even when the gradient is switched on.
This is called the magnetic isocenter.
 The amount of current passing through the coil determines the
amplitude, strength, or the slope of the gradient.
7

8. 8

9. Gradient axes
 There are three gradient coil situated within the bore of the magnet,
and these are named according to the axis along which they act
when they are switched on.
1) Z gradients alters the magnetic field strength along the z (long) axis
of the magnet (from the head to the foot of the patient).
2) Y gradients alters the magnetic field strength along the y (vertical)
axis of the magnet (from the back to the front of the patient).
3) X gradients alters the magnetic field strength along the x
(horizantal) axis of the magnet (from the right to the left of the
patient).
9

10. 10

11.  Gradient are used to either dephase or rephase the magnetic
moments of nuclei.
 Gradients perform the following three main tasks and their main
purpose is to spatially locate or encode signal depending on where
it is located along these three gradients
1) Slice selection ; locating the slice within the selected scan plane.
2) Frequency encoding; spatially locating signal along the long axis
of the slice.
3) Phase encoding; spatially locating signal along the short axis of the
slice.
11

12. 12

13. Slice selection
 Slices are selected by applying a gradient at the same time as the RF
excitation pulse (and the RF rephasing pulse in spin-echo pulse
sequences)
 The slice-select gradient changes the magnetic field strength and
therefore the precessional frequency of the magnetic moments of
hydrogen nuclei that lie along it
 An RF excitation pulse at the specific frequency of magnetic
moments of hydrogen in a particular slice on the gradient causes
resonance of the slice.
 Nuclei situated in other slice along the gradient does not resonate
because their precessional frequencies are different due to presence
of the gradient.
13

14.  RF is transmitted with a bandwidth or range of
frequencies on either side of the center frequency
of the slice.
 Slice thickness is altered by changing the slope of
the slice-select gradient and the transmit
bandwidth
 Thin slices require a steep slice-select gradient
slope and a narrow transmit bandwidth
 Thick slices require a shallow slice-select gradient
slope and a broad transmit bandwidth
14

15. 15

16. Frequency encoding
 Once the slice is selected , signal coming from it is located
along both axes of the image.
 Signal is usually located along the long axis of the anatomy
by a process known as frequency encoding.
 The frequency-encoding gradient is switched on during the
echo. Typically, the peak of the echo occurs in the middle of
the application of this gradient
 The frequency-encoding gradient changes the magnetic
field strength and therefore the precessional frequency of
the magnetic moments of hydrogen nuclei that lie along it
16

17.  The change of frequency is measured and enables the
system to spatially encode signal in the frequency-
encoding direction of the image
 The amplitude of the frequency-encoding gradient
determines the size of the FOV in the frequency
encoding axis of the image.
 A steep frequency-encoding gradient produces a
small FOV dimension in the frequency axes of the
image
 A shallow frequency-encoding gradient produces a
large FOV dimension in the frequency axes of the
image
17

18. 18

19. Phase encoding
 Signal is located along the remaining short axis of the
anatomy, and this localization of signal is called phase
encoding.
 The phase-encoding gradient can be switched on at any
time in a pulse sequence, but it is usually applied as soon
as possible after the RF excitation pulse has been switched
off
 The phase-encoding gradient changes the magnetic field
strength and therefore the precessional frequency and
phase of the magnetic moments of hydrogen nuclei that
lie along it
19

20.  Once this change of phase has occurred, the
phase-encoding gradient is switched off so that the
magnetic moments of hydrogen nuclei precess at
the Larmor frequency again but their phase
difference remains
 The magnetic moment of each spin therefore has a
slightly different phase position to its neighbor
along the gradient
 The phase-encoding gradient is altered to a
different amplitude and polarity during the pulse
sequence.
20

21. 21

22. INTRODUCTION TO GRADIENT ECHO
PULSE SEQUENCE
 The gradient echo pulse sequence is the simplest type of MRI
sequence.
 The major purpose behind the gradient technique is a significant
reduction in scan time.
 Small flip angle are employed, which in turn allow very short
repetition time thus decreasing the scan time.
 The gradient echo is generated by the frequency encode gradient,
except that it is used twice in succession and in opposite direction ;
it is used in reverse at first to enforce transverse dephasement of
spinning protons and then right after, it is used as a readout
gradient to realign the dephased protons and hence acquired
signals.
22

23.  Gradient echo pulse sequence differ from spin echo pulse sequence
in two ways;
1. They use variable RF excitation pulse flip angles as opposed to 90˚
RF excitation pulse flip angles that are common in spin echo pulse
sequence.
2. They use gradient rather than RF pulse to rephase the magnetic
moments of hydrogen nuclei to form an echo.
23

24. How gradients dephase?
 A gradient is applied to coherent magnetization.
 The gradient alter the magnetic field strength experienced by the
coherent magnetization.
 Some of the magnetic moments speed up and some slow down
depending upon their position along the gradient axis.
 Due to this, magnetic moments fan out or dephase because their
frequencies are changed by the gradients.
 Gradient that dephase in this way are called spoilers and the
process of dephasing magnetic moments with gradients is called
gradient spoiling.
24

25. 25

26. HOW GRADIENTS REPHASE?
 A gradient is applied to incoherent/out of phase magnetization
 The magnetic moments initially fanned out due to T2 * dephasing
and the fan has a trailing edge consisting of slow nuclei, and a
leading edge consisting of faster nuclei .
 A gradient is applied so that the magnetic field strength is altered
in a linear fashion along the axis of the gradient.
 Slow nuclei in the trailing edge of the fan experience an increased
magnetic field strength and speed up.
 The faster nuclei in the leading edge of the fan experience a
decreased magnetic field strength and slow down.
26

27.  After a short period of time, the slow nuclei have speedup
sufficiently to meet the faster nuclei that are slowing down.
 When the two meet, all the magnetic moments are in the same
place at the same time and have been rephased by the gradient.
 A maximum signal is therefore induced in the receiver coil and this
signal is called a gradient echo.
 Gradients that rephase are called rewinders .
27

28. 28

29.  Whether a gradient field adds or subtracts from the main magnetic
field depends on the direction of current that passes through the
gradient coils. This is called the polarity of the gradient.
 Gradient-echoes are created by a bipolar gradient. it consists of two
lobes, one negative and one positive.
 The frequency-encoding gradient is used for this purpose.
 It is initially applied negatively, which increases dephasing and
eliminates the FID. Its polarity is then reversed, which rephases only
those magnetic moments that were dephased by the negative lobe.
 Only these nuclei that create the gradient-echo at time TE.
 The area under the negative lobe of the gradient is half that of the
area under the positive lobe.
29

30. 30

31. Weighting in gradient echo pulse sequence
 Three different processes affect weighting in gradient echo pulse
sequences;
1. Extrinsic parameters (TR, TE and flip angle)
2. The steady state
3. Residual transverse magnetization
31

32. 1. EXTRINSIC PARAMETERS
 In gradient echo pulse sequence T2 is termed as T2* to reflect
that the magnetic field inhomogeneities are not compensated
for by gradient rephasing.
 TE controls the T2*contrast and T2* contrast increases as TE
increases.
 TR controls the T1 contrast and T1contrast increases as the TR
decreases.
 In gradient-echo pulse sequences, the TR and the flip angle
control the amount of T1 relaxation and saturation that occurs.
32

33.  Weighting rules in gradient echo are the same as in spin
echo as there is only difference in the flip angle.
 If the combination of flip angle and TR causes saturation of
the vectors then T1 contrast is maximized.
 If the combination of flip angle and TR does not cause
saturation of the vectors ,then T1 contrast is minimized.
33

34. Using extrinsiccontrast parameters –T1 weighting
 To obtain a T1-weighted image, differences in the T1 recovery
times of the tissues are maximized, and differences in the T2* decay
times of the tissues are minimized.
 To avoid full recovery of their longitudinal magnetization, the flip
angle is large and the TR short.
 To minimize differences in T2* decay times, the TE is short so that
neither fat nor water has time to decay.
34

35. 35

36. Using extrinsiccontrast parameters –T2* weighting
 To obtain a T2*-weighted image, differences in the T2* decay times
of the tissues are maximized, and differences in the T1 recovery
times are minimized.
 To maximize differences in T2* decay times, the TE is long so that
fat and water vectors have had time to dephase.
 To minimize differences in T1 recovery times, the flip angle is small
and the TR long enough to permit full recovery of the fat and water
vectors before the next RF excitation pulse is applied.
36

37. 37

38. Using extrinsiccontrast parameters –PDweighting
 To obtain a PD-weighted image, both T1 and T2* processes are
minimized so that the differences in proton density of the tissues
are demonstrated.
 To minimize T2* decay, the TE is short so that neither the fat nor
the water vectors have had time to decay.
 To minimize T1 recovery, the flip angle is small and the TR long
enough to permit full recovery of longitudinal magnetization
before the next RF excitation pulse is applied.
38

39. 39

40. Steady state
 Stage where the TR is shorter than the T1 and T2 times of the tissue.
 Flip angles of 30*- 45* and TR of 20-50 ms achieves this state.
 No times for the transverse magnetization to decay before the
pulse sequence is achieved so there is coexistence of both
longitudinal and transverse magnetization.
40

41. Residual transverse magnetization
 The transverse magnetization produced as a result of previous
excitations is called the residual transverse magnetization(RTM)
 The RTM affects the contrast as it results in tissues with long T2
times appearing bright on the image
 Gradient echo sequence are classified whether the RTM is in
phase(coherent) or out of phase(incoherent)
 RTM is kept coherent by a processes know as rewinding
41

42. REWINDING
 It is the process by residual transverse magnetization is kept
coherent
 Achieved by reversing the slope of the phase encoding gradient
after readout
 Results in RTM rephasing so that it is in phase at the beginning of
the next repetition
 This allows RTM to build up so that tissues with a long T2 produce
high signal
42

43.  Gradient-echo sequences are classified as;
1. Coherent or rewound gradient-echo
2. Incoherent or spoiled gradient-echo
3. Reverse-echo gradient-echo
4. Balanced gradient-echo
5. Fast gradient-echo.
43

44. COHERENT OR REWOUND GRADIENT
ECHO
 Coherent gradient-echo pulse sequences use a variable flip angle RF
excitation pulse followed by gradient rephasing to produce a
gradient-echo.
 Steady state is maintained by selecting a TR shorter than the T1 and
T2 relaxation times of tissues, so there is residual transverse
magnetization left over when the next RF excitation pulse is
applied.
 Coherency of residual magnetization is maintained by rewinding
which is achieved by reversing the slope of phase encoding
gradient after readout.
 Rewinding rephases all the transverse magnetization so that it is in
phase or coherent at the beginning of the next TR period.
44

45. 45

46. PARAMETERS
 To maintain the steady state
 Flip angle 30-45
 TR 20-50 ms
 To maximize T2
 Long TE 10-15 ms
46

47. 47

48. USES
 This pulse sequence produce T2* weighted image.
 As fluid is hyper intense, they give an angiographic, myelographic
or orthographic effect.
 Can be used to determine whether the vessel is patent or whether
the area contain fluid.
 Can be acquired slice by slice or in a 3D volume acquisition.
 As the TR is short, a slice can be acquired in a single breath hold.
48

49. Incoherent or spoiled gradient echo
 It uses gradient to rephase the FID only.
 The RF excitation pulse is phase shifted each time the RF is applied
which prevent accumulation of the RTM effect throughout the
acquisition.
 The RTM is spoiled so that its effect on image contrast is minimal.
 This reduces the effect of magnetic field inhomogeneities.
 Combining this with short TE to reduce T2 effect and T1 effect will
predominate the image contrast
49

50.  Use a short TR and short TE
 Use a moderate flip angle 45-60 degree for the best T1 weighting
 Increased saturation of the spins contribute to the T1 influence
while RF spoiling prevents a great deal of T2* effect
 There are two way to achieve spoiling
1. Digitized RF spoiling
2. Gradient spoiling
50

51. 1. RF SPOILING
 RF spoiling eliminates the residual transverse magnetization so that
tissues with long T2 times are not allowed to dominate image
contrast but T1/ proton density contrast prevails.
 RF spoiling applies RF excitation at different phases every TR so that
the residual transverse magnetization has different phase values
than the transverse magnetization most recently created.
 The RTM is therefore differentiated from that most recently created
because it has a different phase value.
 The residual transverse magnetization and the stimulated echo are
not sampled.
 Only FID is used to produce the gradient echo that forms the
resultant image , so the image contains T1 image.
51

52. 2.GRADIENT SPOILING
 Gradients can be used to dephase as well as rephase the residual
magnetization.
 Gradient spoiling is opposite of rewinding.
 Simply adding an unbalanced gradient at the end of the sequence
dephases transverse magnetization so that it is incoherent at the
beginning of the next repetition.
 However this does not eliminate signal as after several repetition
the signal are refocused.
 Gradient spoiling is less efficient then RF spoiling so more T2*
information is present in the signal.
52

53. PARAMETERS
 To maintain steady state
o flip angle 30-45 degree
o TR 20-50 ms
 To maximize T1; short TE 5-10 ms
53

54. 54

55. USES 55
 Stimulated echo contains T2* and T2 information that
are spoiled so this pulse sequences produce T1- or PD-
weighted images.
 Image contrast is mainly influenced by the FID that
contributes T1 and proton density contrast.
 Used for 2D and volume acquisitions, and, as the TR is
short, 2D acquisitions are used to obtain T1-weighted
breath-hold images
 These sequence demonstrate good T1 anatomy and
pathology after gadolinium contrast enhancement.

56. Reverse-echo gradient-echo
 Reverse echo gradient echo is a steady state sequence that obtains
image that have a sufficiently long TE to measure T2 decay when
using the steady state while still using a short TR.
 Steady state is maintained by using the flip angle between 30˚ and
45˚ with TR of less than 50ms.
 At every TR an excitation pulse is applied and when it is switched
off a FID is produced.
 After the first TR another excitation pulse is applied and it also
produce its own FID. However, it also rephases the residual
transverse magnetization still present from the previous excitation
and produces a stimulated echo.
56

57.  In reverse echo gradient echo, the stimulated echo must be
sampled so to do this stimulated echo must be moved away
from the excitation pulse as RF cannot be transmitted and
received at the same time.
 To achieve this a rewinder gradient is used to speed up the
rephasing process after the RF rephasing has began.
 This rewinder moves the echo so that it occurs sooner than
usual and no longer occurs at the same time as an
excitation pulse.
57

58.  By this way, the stimulated echo can be received and data
from it is collected and which is used to form the image.
 The resultant echo demonstrate more true T2 weighting
then conventional gradient echo sequences. This means that
the TE is now longer then the TR.
 In reverse echo gradient echo, there are usually two TEs;
1) The actual TE- the time between the peak of the gradient
echo and the next RF excitation pulse.
2) The effective TE- the time from the peak of the gradient
echo to a previous RF excitation pulse.
58

59. PARAMETERS
 To maintain the steady state:
1. Flip angle: 30°–45°
2. TR: 20–50 ms
3. The actual TE affects the effective TE. The longer
the actual TE, the shorter the effective TE.
 The actual TE should therefore be as short as
possible to enhance T2 contrast.
59

60. 60
 Figure Axial reverse echo gradient-echo in the brain.

61. USES
 Reverse-echo gradient-echo pulses sequences
were used to acquire images that demonstrate
true T2 weighting
 Useful in the brain and joints with both 2D and
3D volumetric acquisitions.
61

62. BALANCED GRADIEDENT ECHO
 Balanced gradient-echo is a steady state sequence
in which longitudinal magnetization is
maintained during the acquisition, thereby
preventing saturation.
 This is achieved by altering the phase angle of
each RF excitation pulse every TR.
 A balanced gradient scheme is used to correct for
flow artifacts.
62

63. PARAMETERS
 Flip angle variable (larger flip angles increase
signal)
 Short TR less than 10 ms (reduces scan time and
flow artifact)
 Long TE 5–10 ms.
63

64. USES
 The balanced gradient echo are used in cardiac
imaging, it is important whenever T2* weighted
images are required in areas where flow causes
motion artifacts.
 Used in CNS to reduce flow of CSF.
 Used in abdominal system to reduce flow
artifacts in the biliary and circulatory systems.
 As TR is short, this sequence provides excellent
temporal resolution and is also used in volume
imaging.
64

65. Fast gradient echo
 Fast gradient echo pulse sequences acquire a volume in a
single breath hold.
 These employ coherent or incoherent gradient echo
sequence echo sequence, but the TE is reduced.
 Faster scan time are achieved by;
1. Only one RF excitation pulse is applied.
2. Only a proportion of echo is read.
3. Sampling frequencies while the frequency encoding
gradient is still rising.
4. Filling K space in a single shot or in segments.
65

66.  These measures ensure that the TE and TR are very short.
 TE as low as 1ms and TR as low as 5ms can be achieved in
this manner enabling a 3D slab to be imaged in single
breath hold.
66

67. Echo planner imaging
 Echo planner imaging (EPI)is an MR acquisition method that
either fills all the lines of K space in a single repetition (single
shot- SS) or in multiple section (multishot- MS).
 To achieve this, multiple echoes are generated and each is
phase encoded by a different slope of gradient to fill all the
required lines of K space.
 Echoes are generated by oscillation of the frequency
encoding gradient and therefore k space is filled with
acquired from multiple gradient echoes.
 To fill all of K space, the readout and phase encoding
gradient must be rapidly switched on and off.
67

68.  There are many types of EPI;
1. GE-EPI uses a variable flip angle followed by EPI readout
in K space .
2. SE-EPI uses a 90˚/180˚ followed by EPI readout in K
space.
3. IR-EPI uses a 180˚/90˚/180˚ followed by EPI readout in K
space.
 Single or multishot techniques in which spin echoes are
generated by 180˚ rephasing pulse instead of gradient
echoes are called single or multishot turbo spin echo(SS-
TSE or MS-TSE).
68

69. TYPICAL VALUES
 Either proton density or T2 weighting is achieved by
selecting either a short or long effective TE which
corresponds to the time interval between the excitation
pulse and when the center of K space is filled.
 T1weighting is possible by applying an inverting pulse
prior to the excitation pulse to produce saturation.
69

70. 70

71. USES
 Diffusion weighted imaging
 Functional imaging
 Real time cardiac imaging
 Perfusion imaging
 Interventional techniques
 Breath-hold techniques
71

72. 72

73. REFRENCES
 MRI in practice 5th edition –Catherine Westbrook John Talbot
 MRI at a Glance - Catherine Westbrook
 MRI made easy
 The essential physics of medical imaging - Jerrold T. Bushberg
73

74. THANK YOU
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