This document discusses key issues in geriatric pharmacotherapy. It covers how aging affects drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination in the body. It also discusses challenges like polypharmacy and increased risk of adverse drug events. The principles of optimal prescribing for older patients focus on starting with lower doses, avoiding unnecessary medications, and carefully monitoring for drug interactions and side effects.

1. Geriatric Pharmacotherapy Linda Farho, Pharm.D. University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy

2. Objectives Understand key issues in geriatric pharmacotherapy Understand the effect age on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics Discuss risk factors for adverse drug events and ways to mitigate them Understand the principles of drug prescribing for older patients

3. The Aging Imperative Persons aged 65y and older constitute 13% of the population and purchase 33% of all prescription medications By 2040, 25% of the population will purchase 50% of all prescription drugs

4. Challenges of Geriatric Pharmacotherapy New drugs available each year FDA approved and off-label indications are expanding Changing managed-care formularies Advanced understanding of drug-drug interactions Increasing popularity of “nutriceuticals” Multiple co-morbid states Polypharmacy Medication compliance Effects of aging physiology on drug therapy Medication cost

5. Pharmacokinetics (PK) Absorption bioavailability : the fraction of a drug dose reaching the systemic circulation Distribution locations in the body a drug penetrates expressed as volume per weight (e.g. L/kg) Metabolism drug conversion to alternate compounds which may be pharmacologically active or inactive Elimination a drug’s final route(s) of exit from the body expressed in terms of half-life or clearance

6. Effects of Aging on Absorption Rate of absorption may be delayed Lower peak concentration Delayed time to peak concentration Overall amount absorbed (bioavailability) is unchanged

7. Hepatic First-Pass Metabolism For drugs with extensive first-pass metabolism, bioavailability may increase because less drug is extracted by the liver Decreased liver mass Decreased liver blood flow

8. Factors Affecting Absorption Route of administration What it taken with the drug Divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe) Food, enteral feedings Drugs that influence gastric pH Drugs that promote or delay GI motility Comorbid conditions Increased GI pH Decreased gastric emptying Dysphagia

9. Effects of Aging on Volume of Distribution (Vd) diazepam, valproic acid, phenytoin, warfarin  % of unbound or free drug (active)  plasma protein (albumin) quinidine, propranolol, erythromycin, amitriptyline  % of unbound or free drug (active)  plasma protein (  1 -acid glycoprotein) diazepam, trazodone  Vd for lipophilic drugs  fat stores digoxin  Vd for for drugs that bind to muscle  lean body mass ethanol, lithium  Vd for hydrophilic drugs  body water Examples Vd Effect Aging Effect

10. Aging Effects on Hepatic Metabolism Metabolic clearance of drugs by the liver may be reduced due to: decreased hepatic blood flow decreased liver size and mass Examples : morphine, meperidine, metoprolol, propranolol, verapamil, amitryptyline, nortriptyline

11. Metabolic Pathways ** NOTE: Medications undergoing Phase II hepatic metabolism are generally preferred in the elderly due to inactive metabolites (no accumulation) lorazepam, oxazepam, temazepam Conversion to inactive metabolites Phase II : glucuronidation, conjugation, or acetylation diazepam, quinidine, piroxicam, theophylline Conversion to metabolites of lesser, equal, or greater Phase I : oxidation, hydroxylation, dealkylation, reduction Examples Effect Pathway

12. Other Factors Affecting Drug Metabolism Gender Comorbid conditions Smoking Diet Drug interactions Race Frailty

13. Concepts in Drug Elimination Half-life time for serum concentration of drug to decline by 50% (expressed in hours) Clearance volume of serum from which the drug is removed per unit of time (mL/min or L/hr) Reduced elimination  drug accumulation and toxicity

14. Effects of Aging on the Kidney Decreased kidney size Decreased renal blood flow Decreased number of functional nephrons Decreased tubular secretion Result:  glomerular filtration rate (GFR) Decreased drug clearance : atenolol, gabapentin, H2 blockers, digoxin, allopurinol, quinolones

15. Estimating GFR in the Elderly Creatinine clearance (CrCl) is used to estimate glomerular rate Serum creatinine alone not accurate in the elderly  lean body mass  lower creatinine production  glomerular filtration rate Serum creatinine stays in normal range, masking change in creatinine clearance

16. Determining Creatinine Clearance Measure Time consuming Requires 24 hr urine collection Estimate Cockroft Gault equation (IBW in kg) x (140-age) ------------------------------ x (0.85 for females) 72 x (Scr in mg/dL)

17. Example: Creatinine Clearance vs. Age in a 5’5”, 55 kg Woman 30 1.1 90 41 1.1 70 53 1.1 50 65 1.1 30 CrCl Scr Age

18. Limitations in Estimating CrCl Not all persons experience significant age-related decline in renal function Some patient’s muscle mass is reduced beyond that of normal aging Suggest using 1 mg/dL if serum creatinine is less than normal (<0.7 mg/dL) Not precise, may underestimate actual CrCl

19. Pharmacodynamics (PD) Definition: the time course and intensity of pharmacologic effect of a drug Age-related changes:  sensitivity to sedation and psychomotor impairment with benzodiazepines  level and duration of pain relief with narcotic agents  drowsiness and lateral sway with alcohol  HR response to beta-blockers  sensitivity to anti-cholinergic agents  cardiac sensitivity to digoxin

20. PK and PD Summary PK and PD changes generally result in decreased clearance and increased sensitivity to medications in older adults Use of lower doses, longer intervals, slower titration are helpful in decreasing the risk of drug intolerance and toxicity Careful monitoring is necessary to ensure successful outcomes

21. Optimal Pharmacotherapy Balance between overprescribing and underprescribing Correct drug Correct dose Targets appropriate condition Is appropriate for the patient Avoid “a pill for every ill” Always consider non-pharmacologic therapy

22. Consequences of Overprescribing Adverse drug events (ADEs) Drug interactions Duplication of drug therapy Decreased quality of life Unnecessary cost Medication non-adherence

23. Adverse Drug Events (ADEs) Responsible for 5-28% of acute geriatric hospital admissions Greater than 95% of ADEs in the elderly are considered predictable and approximately 50% are considered preventable Most errors occur at the ordering and monitoring stages

24. Most Common Medications Associated with ADEs in the Elderly Opioid analgesics NSAIDs Anticholinergics Benzodiazepines Also : cardiovascular agents, CNS agents, and musculoskeletal agents Adverse Drug Reaction Risk Factors in Older Outpatients. Am J Ger Pharmacotherapy 2003;1(2):82-89.

25. The Beers Criteria antihistamines diphenhydramine dipyridamole ergot mesyloids indomethacin muscle relaxants amitriptyline chlorpropamide digoxin >0.125mg/d disopyramide GI antispasmodics meperidine methyldopa pentazocine ticlopidine High Potential for Less Severe ADE High Potential for Severe ADE

26. Patient Risk Factors for ADEs Polypharmacy Multiple co-morbid conditions Prior adverse drug event Low body weight or body mass index Age > 85 years Estimated CrCl <50 mL/min

27. Prescribing Cascade ADE interpreted as new medical condition Drug 1 Drug 2 ADE interpreted as new medical condition Drug 3 Rochon PA, Gurwitz JH. Optimizing drug treatment in elderly people: the prescribing cascase. BMJ 1997;315:1097.

28. Drug-Drug Interactions (DDIs) May lead to adverse drug events Likelihood  as number of medications  Most common DDIs: cardiovascular drugs psychotropic drugs Most common drug interaction effects: confusion cognitive impairment hypotension acute renal failure

29. Concepts in Drug-Drug Interactions Absorption may be  or  Drugs with similar effects can result additive effects Drugs with opposite effects can antagonize each other Drug metabolism may be inhibited or induced

30. Common Drug-Drug Interactions Doucet J, Chassagne P, Trivalle C, et al. Drug-drug interactions related to hospital admissions in older adults: a prospective study of 1000 patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996;44(9):944-948. Sedation; confusion; falls Benzodiazepine + antidepressant Benzodiazepine + antipsychotic Electrolyte imbalance; dehydration Diuretic + diuretic Bradycardia, arrhythmia Digoxin + antiarrhythmic Hypotension CCB/nitrate/vasodilator/diuretic Electrolyte imbalance; arrhythmia Digoxin + diuretic Antiarrhythmic + diuretic Hyperkalemia, hypotension ACE inhibitor + K sparing diuretic Hyperkalemia ACE inhibitor + potassium Risk Combination

31. Drug-Disease Interactions Obesity alters Vd of lipophilic drugs Ascites alters Vd of hydrophilic drugs Dementia may  sensitivity, induce paradoxical reactions to drugs with CNS or anticholinergic activity Renal or hepatic impairment may impair metabolism and excretions of drugs Drugs may exacerbate a medical condition

32. Common Drug-Disease Interactions Fluid retention; decreased effectiveness of diuretics NSAIDs + HTN Increased ulcer and bleeding risk NSAIDs + gastropathy Hypoxia; increased risk of lactic acidosis Metformin + CHF Exacerbation of constipation CCB + constipation Narcotics + constipation Anticholinergics + constipation Urinary retention BPH + anticholinergics Fluid retention; CHF exacerbation NSAIDs + CHF Thiazolidinediones + CHF Risk Combination

33. Principles of Prescribing in the Elderly Avoid prescribing prior to diagnosis Start with a low dose and titrate slowly Avoid starting 2 agents at the same time Reach therapeutic dose before switching or adding agents Consider non-pharmacologic agents

34. Prescribing Appropriately Determine therapeutic endpoints and plan for assessment Consider risk vs. benefit Avoid prescribing to treat side effect of another drug Use 1 medication to treat 2 conditions Consider drug-drug and drug-disease interactions Use simplest regimen possible Adjust doses for renal and hepatic impairment Avoid therapeutic duplication Use least expensive alternative

35. Preventing Polypharmacy Review medications regularly and each time a new medication started or dose is changed Maintain accurate medication records (include vitamins, OTCs, and herbals) “Brown-bag”

36. Non-Adherence Rate may be as high as 50% in the elderly Factors in non-adherence Financial, cognitive, or functional status Beliefs and understanding about disease and medications

37. Enhancing Medication Adherence Avoid newer, more expensive medications that are not shown to be superior to less expensive generic alternatives Simplify the regimen Utilize pill organizers or drug calendars Educate patient on medication purpose, benefits, safety, and potential ADEs

38. Summary Successful pharmacotherapy means using the correct drug at the correct dose for the correct indication in an individual patient Age alters PK and PD ADEs are common among the elderly Risk of ADEs can be minimized by appropriate prescribing

39. Questions

40. Case 1 A 73 y/o woman is seen for a routine visit: Blood pressure is 134/84 mmHg and HgbA1c is 8.1% Metformin is increased to 500mg bid and other daily medications are continued: amlodipine 5mg qd, timolol ophthalmic 1 drop ou bid, aspirin 81mg qd, and calcium citrate 500mg qd At 6 month follow-up, blood pressure is 130/82 mmHg, finger stick BS is 93 mg/dL, and HgbA1c is 9.2%

41. Case 1 Which of the following is the most likely explanation for the increase in HgA1c? Incorrect choice of antidiabetic medication Inadequate dose of antidiabetic medication Long-term non-adherence with medication Altered pharmacokinetics Altered drug absorption

42. Case 1 Which of the following is the most likely explanation for the increase in HgA1c? Incorrect choice of antidiabetic medication Inadequate dose of antidiabetic medication Long-term non-adherence with medication Altered pharmacokinetics Altered drug absorption

43. Case 2 A 68 y/o woman has a hx of Parkinson’s disease, hypertension, and osteoarthritis Daily medications are carbidopa 25mg/levodopa 100mg tid, selegiline 5mg bid, losartan 50mg, celecoxib 200mg qd, and MVI qd In the past 3 weeks, she has taken diphenhydramine at bedtime for insomnia The patient now reports the onset of urinary incontinence

44. Case 2 Which of the following is the most appropriate intervention? Discontinue celecoxib Discontinue diphenhydramine Discontinue losartan Substitute fosinopril for losartan Begin tolterodine

45. Case 2 Which of the following is the most appropriate intervention? Discontinue celecoxib Discontinue diphenhydramine Discontinue losartan Substitute fosinopril for losartan Begin tolterodine

46. Case 3 An 83 y/o woman is brought to the ER because of dizziness on standing, followed by brief LOC; the patient now feels well She has hypertension but is otherwise healthy Daily medications: metoprolol 50mg/d, captopril 25 mg/d, and nitroglycerin 0.4mg SL prn BP is 130/70 mmHg sitting and 100/60 standing; PE is otherwise normal; CBC, BUN, ECG, CMP are all normal

47. Case 3 Which of the following is the most likely cause of this syncopal episode? Sepsis Drug-related event Hypovolemic hypotensive episode Cardiogenic shock Unidentifiable cause

48. Case 3 Which of the following is the most likely cause of this syncopal episode? Sepsis Drug-related event Hypovolemic hypotensive episode Cardiogenic shock Unidentifiable cause