The document discusses various health risks travelers may face when visiting locations with different environmental conditions, such as changes in altitude, temperature, humidity, and exposure to microbes, animals, insects, food, water and ultraviolet radiation. It provides information on potential illnesses like altitude sickness, heat illness, traveller's diarrhea, and outlines precautions travelers can take to minimize health risks like drinking plenty of fluids, wearing protective clothing and applying sunscreen.

1. Dr. Kt Indra Purnomo, M.Kes

2.  Travellers often experience abrupt and dramatic
changes in environmental conditions, which may have
detrimental effects on health and well-being.
 Travel may involve major changes in altitude,
temperature and humidity, and exposure to microbes,
animals and insects
 The negative impact of sudden changes in the
environment can be minimized by taking simple
precautions

3. 1. Altitude
 Barometric pressure falls with increasing altitude,
diminishing the partial pressure of oxygen and causing
hypoxia
 The partial pressure of oxygen at 2500 m, is 26% lower
than at sea level
 The partial pressure of oxygen at 4000 m, is 41% lower
than at sea level
 This places a substantial stress on the body, which
requires at least a few days to acclimatize; the extent of
acclimatization may be limited by certain medical
conditions, especially lung disease

4.  An increase in alveolar oxygen through increased
ventilation is the key to acclimatization; this process
starts at 1500 m.
 Despite successful acclimatization, aerobic exertion
remains difficult and travellers may still experience
problems with sleep.
 High-altitude illness (HAI) results when hypoxic stress
outstrips acclimatization.
 HAI can occur at any altitude above 2100 m but is
particularly common above 2750 m

6.  The spectrum of HAI includes common acute
mountain sickness (AMS), occasional high-altitude
pulmonary oedema and, rarely, high altitude cerebral
oedema
 AMS may occur after 1–12 h at high altitude.
 Headache is followed by anorexia, nausea, insomnia,
fatigue and lassitude
 Symptoms usually resolve spontaneously in 24–48 h
and are ameliorated by oxygen or analgesics and
antiemetics

7.  Acetazolamide, 5 mg/kg per day in divided doses, is an
effective chemoprophylaxis for all HAI; it is started one
day before travel to altitude and continued for the first
2 days at altitude
 Contraindications for travel to altitude :
 unstable angina, pulmonary hypertension, severe
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and
sickle-cell anaemia

8. Precaution for travellers
unaccustomed to high altitudes
 Avoid one-day travel to sleeping altitudes over 2750 m
if possible. Break the journey for at least one night at
2000–2500 m to help prevent AMS.
 Avoid overexertion and alcohol for the first 24 h at
altitude; drink extra water.
 If direct travel to sleeping altitude over 2750 m is
unavoidable, consider prophylaxis with acetazolamide.
Acetazolamide is also effective if started early in the
course of AMS.
 Travellers planning to climb or trek at high altitude
will require a period of gradual acclimatization.

9.  Travellers with pre-existing cardiovascular or
pulmonary disease should seek medical advice before
travelling to high altitudes.
 Travellers with the following symptoms should seek
medical attention when experiencing, at altitude :
— symptoms of AMS that are severe or last longer than 2
days;
— progressive shortness of breath with cough and
fatigue;
— ataxia or altered mental status

10. 2. Heat and humidity
 Sudden changes in temperature and humidity may
have adverse effects on health
 Travellers should drink enough fluid to be able to
maintain usual urine production; older travellers
should take particular care to consume extra fluids in
hot conditions, as the thirst reflex diminishes with age
 Fungal skin infections such as tinea pedis (athlete’s
foot) are often aggravated by heat and humidity.

11.  Exposure to hot, dry, dusty air may lead to irritation
and infection of the eyes and respiratory tract.
 Avoid contact lenses in order to reduce the risk of eye
problems.

12. 3. Ultraviolet radiation from the
sun
 The ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun includes
UVA (wavelength 315–400 nm) and UVB (280–315 nm)
radiation, both of which are damaging to human skin
and eyes.
 UV radiation penetrates clear water to a depth of 1 m
or more.
 UV radiation increases approximately 5% for every 300
m altitude gain.

13.  The adverse effects of UV radiation from the sun are
the following:
Exposure to UV radiation, particularly UVB, can
produce severe debilitating sunburn, particularly in
light-skinned people.
Exposure of the eyes may result in acute keratitis
(“snow blindness”), and long-term damage leads to the
development of cataracts.
Exposure to sunlight may result in solar urticaria – a
form of hives associated with itching and redness on
areas of skin exposed to sunlight

14.  Long-term adverse effects on the skin include:
— the development of skin cancers (carcinomas and
malignant melanoma), due mainly to UVB
radiation;
— accelerated ageing of the skin, due mainly to UVA
radiation, which penetrates more deeply into the
skin than UVB.
 Adverse reactions of the skin result from interaction
with a wide range of medicinal drugs that may cause
photosensitization and result in phototoxic or
photoallergic dermatitis

15.  Various types of therapeutic drugs such as
antimicrobials as well as oral contraceptives and some
prophylactic antimalarial drugs may cause adverse
dermatological reactions on exposure to sunlight
 Phototoxic contact reactions are caused by topical
application of products, including perfumes,
containing oil of bergamot or other citrus oils
 Exposure may suppress the immune system,
increasing the risk of infectious disease, and limiting
the efficacy of vaccinations.

16. Precautions
 Avoid exposure to the sun in the middle of the day,
when the UV intensity is greatest.
 Wear clothing that covers arms and legs (covering the
skin with clothing is more effective against UV than
applying a sunscreen).
 Wear UV-protective sunglasses of wrap-around design
plus a wide-brimmed sun hat.
 Apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen of sun protection
factor (SPF) 15+ liberally on areas of the body not
protected by clothing and reapply frequently.

17.  Take particular care to ensure that babies and children
are well protected.
 Avoid exposure to the sun during pregnancy.
 Take precautions against excessive exposure while on
or in water or on snow.
 Check that medication being taken will not affect
sensitivity to UV radiation.
 If adverse skin reactions have occurred previously,
avoid any exposure to the sun and avoid any products
that have previously caused the adverse reactions.

18. 4. Foodborne and waterborne
health risks
 Many important infectious diseases (such as
campylobacteriosis, cholera, cryptosporidiosis,
cyclosporiasis, giardiasis, hepatitis A and E, listeriosis,
salmonellosis, shigellosis and typhoid fever) are
transmitted by contaminated food and water.

19. 5. Travellers’ diarrhoea
 Travellers’ diarrhoea is a clinical syndrome associated
with contaminated food or water that occurs during or
shortly after travel
 It is the most common health problem encountered by
travellers and, depending on length of stay, may affect
up to 80% of travellers to high-risk destinations.

20. 6. Recreational waters
 The use of coastal waters and freshwater lakes and rivers
for recreational purposes has a beneficial effect on health
through exercise, and rest and relaxation.
 However, various hazards to health may also be associated
with recreational waters, following :
 Drowning and injury
 Physiological:
— chilling, leading to coma and death;
— thermal shock, leading to cramps and cardiac arrest;
— acute exposure to heat and UV radiation in sunlight:
heat exhaustion, sunburn, sunstroke;
— cumulative exposure to sun (skin cancers, cataract).

21.  Infection:
— ingestion or inhalation of, or contact with, pathogenic
bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses;
— bites by mosquitoes and other insect vectors of
infectious diseases.
Poisoning and toxicoses:
— ingestion or inhalation of, or contact with, chemically
contaminated water, including oil slicks;
— stings or bites of venomous animals;
— ingestion or inhalation of, or contact with, blooms of
toxigenic plankton

22. 6.1. Exposure to cold: immersion
hypothermia
 Wearing warm clothing as well as a life jacket can
greatly prolong survival in cold water
 Children, particularly boys, have less fat than adults
and chill very rapidly in cool or cold water
 Swimming is difficult in very cold water (5 °C or
below), and even good swimmers can drown suddenly
if they attempt to swim even short distances in water at
these temperatures without a life jacket
 Those engaging in winter activities on water, such as
skating and fishing, should be aware that whole-body
immersion must be avoided

23. 6.2 Infection
 In coastal waters, infection may result from ingestion
or inhalation of, or contact with, pathogenic
microorganisms, which may be naturally present,
carried by people or animals using the water, or
present as a result of faecal contamination
 In fresh waters, leptospirosis may be spread by the
urine of infected rodents, causing human infection
through contact with broken skin or mucous
membrane
 In swimming pools and spas, infection may occur if
treatment and disinfection of the water are inadequate

24.  Direct person-to-person contact or physical contact
with contaminated surfaces in the vicinity of pools and
spas may spread the viruses that cause molluscum
contagiosum and cutaneous papillomas (warts);
fungal infections of the hair, fingernails and skin,
notably tinea pedis (athlete’s foot), are spread in a
similar manner

25. Precautions
 Adopt safe behaviour in all recreational waters.
 Comply with posted rules and regulations.
 Avoid consumption of alcohol before and during any
activities in or near recreational waters.
 Provide constant supervision of children in the vicinity
of recreational waters.
 Avoid temperature extremes in spas, saunas, etc; this is
particularly important for users with pre-existing
medical conditions, pregnant women and young
children.

26.  Avoid contact with contaminated waters and unclean
sand or soil.
 Apply antiseptic to coral cuts and abrasions.
 Avoid swallowing any water.
 Obtain advice locally about the presence of potentially
dangerous aquatic animals.
 Wear shoes when walking on shores, riverbanks and
muddy terrain.

27. 7 Animals and insects
7.1. Mammals
 Animal bites may cause serious injury and may also
result in transmission of disease.
 Rabies is the most important infectious health hazard
from animal bites.

28. Precautions
 Avoid direct contact with domestic animals in areas where
rabies occurs, and with all wild and captive animals.
 Avoid behaviour that may startle, frighten or threaten an
animal.
 Ensure that children do not approach, touch or otherwise
provoke any animal.
 Treat any animal bite immediately by washing with clean
water, disinfectant or soap and seek medical advice.
 If a significant risk of exposure to rabies is foreseen, seek
medical advice beforetravelling.

29. 7.2 Snakes, scorpions and spiders
 Travellers to tropical, subtropical and desert areas
should be aware of the possible presence of venomous
snakes, scorpions and spiders
 Neurotoxins are present in the venom of both
terrestrial and aquatic snakes, and also often in the
venom of scorpions and spiders
 Most snake venoms affect blood coagulation, which
may result in haemorrhage and reduced blood
pressure.

30. Precautions
 Obtain local advice about the possible presence of
venomous snakes, scorpions and spiders in the area.
 Avoid walking barefoot or in open sandals in terrain where
venomous snakes, scorpions or spiders may be present;
wear boots or closed shoes and long trousers.
 Avoid placing hands or feet where snakes, spiders or
scorpions may be hiding.
 Be particularly careful outdoors at night.
 Examine clothing and shoes before use for hidden snakes,
scorpions or spiders.
 Sleep under a mosquito net

31. 7.3 Aquatic animals
 Swimmers and divers may be bitten by certain aquatic
animals, including conger and moray eels, piranhas,
seals and sharks.
 They may be stung by venomous cnidaria jellyfish, fire
corals, sea anemones, stingrays, weever fish,
scorpionfish, stonefish and invertebrate aquatic
species.

32. Precautions
 Obtain local advice on the possible presence of dangerous
aquatic animals in the area.
 Avoid behaviour that will provoke attack by predatory
animals.
 Wear shoes or sandals when walking on the shore and at
the water’s edge.
 Avoid contact with jellyfish (both live jellyfish in water and
dead jellyfish on the beach).
 Avoid walking, wading or swimming in crocodile-infested
waters at all times of year.
 Seek medical advice after a sting or bite by a venomous
animal.

33. 7.4 Insects and other vectors of
disease
 Vectors play an essential role in the transmission of
many infectious diseases
 Mosquitoes are important insect vectors of disease,
and some diseases are transmitted by bloodsucking
flies
 Water plays a key role in the life-cycle of most vectors

34. Protection against vectors
 Insect repellents
 Mosquito nets
 Mosquito coils
 Aerosol sprays
 Protective clothing

35. 8. Intestinal parasites: risks for
travellers
 Travellers may be exposed to a number of intestinal
parasitic helminth (worm) infections, particularly
when visiting tropical and subtropical countries.
 The following are themain intestinal parasitic
helminths to which travellers may be exposed :
Hookworms
Tapeworms
Roundworms and whipworms.