Digital divide: The brazilianisation of the world

Digital divide
The Brazilianisation of the World
Joana Andrade Ramalho Pinto
Reg No 00093170E
Contemporary Debates in Hypermedia
Tutor: Richard Barbrook
MA Hypermedia Studies
University of Westminster
Summer 2001

2
Content
Introduction 3
The periphery 4
The core 8
The world divide 12
Conclusion 15
Notes 16
Bibliography 17

3
Digital divide - The Brazilianisation of the World
Introduction
The so-called "digital divide" is defined as the gap between countries with
adequate access to modern information technology and those without. This
divide is concerning because it seems to be widening and at the same time
making clear the difference between wealthy economic systems and the poverty
of human kind in rest of the world for a long time.
This “social divide” has been emphasised by digital technologies leading to a
world in which poor countries will be further marginalised and their opportunities
reduced, while development opportunities will be missed. What needs to be
done is not just cross the digital divide but create a digital bridge to help close
the socio-economic divide.
The Global Information Infrastructure Commission (GIIC) revealed that the
“digital divide”, however, is a problem with many dimensions. It can be seen as a
disjunction between the rich north and the poor south. It can be seen as a
difference between sophisticated, wired urban areas and under-resourced rural
regions. But it can also be seen, in every country, as the gap between early
adopters, late adopters and never adopters of information technology.
1
According to Barbrook, “ Lipietz has seen a vision of the future and it is called
Brazil. This is a world where the crisis of Fordism has been resolved by
organising the economy through the exclusionary regime of accumulation.
Society is divided between a 'core' and a 'periphery' “. In this case the core is
defined as the socially integrated high-paid, skilled and full time workers,
contrasting with the periphery, which is marginalised, low-paid and unskilled and
part-time menials. In this divided society there is a combination of high-tech
consumer goods with urban deprivation.
2
The Internet is the fastest-growing communication medium ever. And like all new

4
communication media it is expected to narrow this existing core-periphery
information gap, by reducing illiteracy and bringing economic development to
poor countries. But it relies on technology, which is much less accessible and
much more expensive in the periphery than in the developed world.
Considering the Lipietz’s analysis concerning the growth of Internet in developing
countries, this paper addresses Brazil as a developing country that is facing the
“digital divide” within its own territory and among developed worlds. By reviewing
what the government and communities are doing to narrow the technological
gap, two questions will be discussed. Is the promise of creating a flow of
information without barriers carried by the Internet a reality for the periphery? Is it
possible to leapfrog knowledge without infrastructure? These questions will be
contrasted with examples from China, China being defined as a socialist
economy and Brazil as a ‘successful’ capitalist economy, in order to indicate a
scapegoat beyond the “brazilianisation” of the world.
The periphery
“The voices and concerns of people already living in human poverty – lacking
incomes, education and access to public education – are being increasingly
marginalised. Determined efforts are needed to bring developing countries – and
poor people everywhere – into the global conversation. “
3
There are a number of examples of positive outcomes where communities or
groups are able to overcome the economic and educational barriers to Internet
access. After many years of dictatorship in many developing countries such as
Brazil, where the governments censored the flow of information within the mass
communication media, Internet can be now be responsible for the "revolution in
democratic communication" and is expected to do no less than virtually
transform society. Some political movements and communities who live in
absolute misery are finding on the Internet a way to express their opinions and
discuss their problems without been censored.
The Movement of Landless Rural Workers (MST), Brazil's largest and most
dynamic social movement uses the Internet to publish their causes to promote a

5
fair land reform. While 60% of Brazil’s farmland lies idle, 25 million peasants
struggle to survive by working in temporary agricultural jobs.
4
The movement
struggles for the people’s rights to work, a land to cultivate and an education for
all peasants and their children. These people are excluded from the economic
process by living in rural areas using a primitive workforce, themselves. They are
twice marginalised: first by their own socio-economic condition, and second by
their activities, which does not involve an industrialised mode of production.
Even so they manage to find a way of inserting themselves into the new
technology communication system.
Marginalised communities in urban areas – favelas (shantytowns) – are also
aware of the importance of the Internet as a way of communication. As artisans
of new technology they can express ideas, discuss their needs, promote
particular business, and also promote cultural heritage such as the Carnival
Samba Schools. Their use of information and communication technology is a
very peculiar way of attempting to integrate the ‘periphery’ within the ‘core’.
“Favelas”- shantytowns, sprang up in Brazilian cities in the mid-1930s as illegal
shelter for newly arrived migrants who wanted to live close to their jobs.
5
These
“favelas” had their boom by the end of the 1960s and early 1970s, when Brazil
lived what is called the “economic miracle”. Brazil had developed a very
competitive industrial base, substituting imported goods for nationally produced
products; there was even a developing export market. Even with this economic
leap, the "miracle" did not reach everyone, or even majority of the population. At
this time Brazil was experiencing an internal migration from the rural areas of the
country to the big industrialised urban centres, people were leaving the
countryside to seek steady jobs in the city. The main problem with this transition
was that most of peasants came from primitive rural system unskilled to deal with
the new urban industrialised environment. This had serious consequences
leading to an excess of labour and low wages in the big urban areas, this in turn
generated an extraordinary demand for shelter, which the cities were not ready
to provide.
The majority of newly arrived migrants had to live in the desperate conditions of
these “favelas”. This system of appropriation of land is still happening. The
“favelados” (people that live in “favelas”) have no legal right to the land, so they
live there for as long as they can. In Rio de Janeiro, the favelas crowd between

6
rocky peaks and the sea, and nowadays more than a quarter of the city’s
population huddle together in these shantytowns. These areas do not have the
essential infrastructure of a major urban centre, they are often considered
inappropriate for residential construction, either sitting on steep slopes in areas
inappropriated for highways. Unstable hillside soil and improper drainage make
Brazil’s shantytowns a dangerous place to live.
6
Slum congestion is a fact not
only in Rio de Janeiro, but also in all of Brazil’s large urban centres such as São
Paulo, Belo Horizonte, and Brasília. The consolidation of such large urban
spaces in every city makes it almost impossible to re-accommodate these
marginalised people.
Although there is a physical limit to the favela, the barrier between the legal
urban settlement of the city and the illegal urban settlement of the favela is not
only spatial. There is a sociological malaise associated with some activities
carried on in favelas. In most of the cases these areas serve as headquarters for
the cities powerful drug cartels, who often use the shantytowns as the site of
shootouts between rival gangs and the police. But this is changing. “A few years
ago people were ashamed of living in a favela. The word favela has become
pejorative and insulting. People prefer to use the word “community” which is
more accurate. Some of them are well organised and carry a lot of political
weight with the authorities.”
7
The idea of community sprung and people started to organise in self-help
schemes to acquire better conditions without waiting for government support.
Some “favelas” have many problems: poor housing conditions, disease, a lack of
education and poor sanitation, which in the worst cases means lack of a water
supply, and the major of the energy system is illegal. The idea of community not
only evolved to solve these infrastructure problems in groups, but also to
establish a self-help system for all kinds of social problems within the called
“community”.
Lately, following the community program, a group of volunteers in Rio de Janeiro
launched the on-line Favela News Agency in an effort to "open the doors to Rio's
favelas – the slums that often only have footpaths connecting them to the city.
It's a channel to praise social projects or denounce violence, but it's also a place
just to talk about what's going on in the hundreds of neighbourhoods that people
are afraid to visit”. The website gives the city's marginalised people a new voice

7
and also gives cybersurfers a peek at life in Rio's shantytowns, meeting growing
demand from students and foreigners for details about Rio's famous "favelas."
8
Aware of the importance of educational process this news agency is offering
introductory journalism courses to residents in dozens of shantytowns and the
non profit organisation ‘Committee for Democratisation of Information
Technology Americas’, is donating used computers and training people to use
them. This example shows that the demand from these communities is not for
technology itself, but it is an urge for access to education, which supposedly is
the government’s responsibility and has not been supplied. The Internet alone
does not do anything but the social initiative with the financial initiative together
can bridge the social gap: dissolving the digital divide is not a question of the
digital itself but there is a former purpose which is to break the existing social
barrier.
A more capitalist insertion of information technology in these communities is
seen in the use of the Internet for advertisement and self-promotion. This is the
case of the periphery mirroring the core. Many of the favelas have small
industries and local shops that provide employment and money for the migrants,
an informal economy activity. These industries are often based upon turning
someone else's unwanted materials into something more useful, these activities
are being advertised in some of the communities’ websites
9
. Another way of
exploring business is the use of the Internet to offer excursions for foreigner
tourist trough the paths of these “medieval” urban areas, although these tours
provide an, albeit superficial view of Brazil’s slum, they do help in educating
tourists to the ‘shantytown’ culture.10
This is particularly clear with the promotion
of strongest cultural heritage of the favelas – the Samba Schools of Rio’s famous
carnival.
11
Another example of self-determinate form of work is “Radio Favela FM” in the
city of Belo Horizonte. A community from this city launched a pirate radio station
in 1981, the station ran off a battery transistor – there was no electricity
infrastructure at that time. Against repression and political arrestment that
existed in Brazil, the station had to continually move among the shacks within the
favela so as not to be caught. This assisted in motivating and involving the
community with the cause. The need for a local form of expression and
communication to be heard broadly in the city was a cause good enough to fight

8
for, and so, there was a huge degree of complicity among the whole community
involved. In 1996 with 160 thousands inhabitants, this “radio favela” got official
permission for transmission and became recognised as a cultural and social
entity where education, violence, health and other services are the main topics of
discussion. This discussion is not merely within the community itself but it is a
two-way process, where all the problems of the city are raised and debated
through input from both the ‘periphery’ and the ‘core’. With the introduction of
their own website the community entered the “digital era” using this new medium
to communicate and reduce the distance and inequality with the rest of the world.
In this example, the appropriation of technology and its use as a strong link of
communication within the ‘core’ enabled the ‘periphery’ to have its voice heard in
the global debate.
12
These initiatives are showing the extraordinary potential that technology can
have for empowering communities for their own development. However, most of
the initiatives are small, isolated and independent. Very few have spread widely.
Even fewer have established a basis for the sustainable funding of the
technology on a large scale. These projects also show that the full potential of
the technologies lies in combining their separate capabilities into "integrated
systems”. An advance in approach to funding the technology can make it
accessible and affordable for everyone. Poor people can never have access to
the potential of these technologies if they have to own them in order to use them.
There was to be a greater involvement of the government in order to remove
these divides. It is not merely the digital divide that must be broken. It is the
whole question of the insertion of the ‘periphery’ within the ‘core’ that has to be
considered.
The core
The period of rapid economic growth in Brazil, beginning in the 1960s and lasting
until the outbreak of the debt crisis in 1982, led to an improvement in income
distribution. Nevertheless, this improvement was short-lived. The 80s arrived with
the explosion of the debt crisis, and the removal of the dictatorship. The process
by which this came about is complex. Distribution of capital took central stage in
the industrial conflict. Moreover, one section of the population (the new middle

9
class) established for itself a quasi-Fordist way of life.
13
Labour relations were
unable to stabilise the situation of a marginalised surplus workforce, having as a
consequence a large informal economic sector and different levels of economic
activity in the formal economy. The attempts to deal with the changing labour
markets through flexible wage agreements widened the gap between the formal
and informal sector wages, leading to the exploitation of the unskilled workforce.
This whole context generated economic instability, the uneven distribution of
incomes and the high levels of interest rates on capital, resulted in lower levels of
consumption. This context, together with the cultural historical background of
Brazilian society, that of a colonized past, re-awoke the two main casts, the core
and the slaves. This colonial division made it easier to accept and explore this
new divided labour force, highlighting the division between the ‘core’ and the
‘periphery’.
The Brazilian’s origins, developments and consequences of the process of
industrialisation are well illustrated by Lipietz when he says: “Brazil began to
industrialize precociously and with great success. The military coup d'état of
1964 removed de facto the social benefits of the Vargas administration. As a
consequence, the 'scientific organization of labour' (Taylorism) developed
without any limit other than its technological dependency, and the bloody
suppression of trade unions delivered a 'flexible' workforce to capital.”
14
The
effects of this process, allied to the American imperialism, lead to the debt crisis
and brought with it a very instable economy, which is currently affecting the
whole social system.
Today, high inflation has been halted, deep economic reforms have been
adopted to support market operations, and productivity and economic growth
have been restored. However, the concentration of capital income has remained
nearly unchanged. The most remarkable fact is that nowadays the incidence of
poverty is still almost as high as it was 20 years ago. The main reason is the
persistence of very high inequality. Spending on education, health, social
security and assistance benefit only the middle class and the rich. This inequality
is most clearly expressed in the division of the state income, in which 20% of the
population can be described as very poor, having only 2.5% of the income, while
other 20% that can be described as the very rich have 64% of the same
budget.15

10
Being highly urbanised, with 81 percent of its 170 million population living in
cities, ten of which have more than 1 million inhabitants, Brazil is apparently a
potential place for the spread of information technology. Brazil opened up the
Internet to the public in May 1995 and it is one of the countries where the
Internet is growing fastest. Now it has an online population of more than 10
million and appears as the 7th country in number of Internet users worldwide, it
is the biggest Latin American market with 41 percent of total users in the region.
However, this potential has been focussed on profitable business enterprises,
emphasising capital growth rather than working towards social problems.16
According to the GIIC “a telecommunication infrastructure is needed, but the
infrastructure costs are immense, and the governments are turning to private
sectors. Opening telecommunications and Internet provider sectors to the market
can massively increase connectivity. But schemes are needed to ensure that the
market does not focus only on lucrative urban customers.”17
In the Brazilian
case, this need must be analysed under the light of the privatisation of
telecommunication system and its consequences must be questioned, once the
benefits of this privatisation are not usually social, but merely technological in
order to insert the new system in the capitalist world and profit from it.
The process of capitalist exploitation of communications can be traced back to
the privatisation of the Brazilian telecommunication system. Until 1999, Brazil
had a state monopoly of the telecommunication, however since privatisation
many different international companies have brought into the system.
Privatisation has led to some dramatic improvements. Before privatisation, to
have a phone line installed in Sao Paulo, it used to cost U$5,000 on the black
market. Today, following privatisation and the liberalisation of the market, lines
are installed for U$35 in under two weeks. These improvements are reflected in
the number of telephones now in use in Brazil. In February 2001 Brazil had 23,6
million mobiles and 38,9 terrestrial lines. In the next five years, the government
expects to see private investment exceed US$64 billion in the telecommunication
infrastructure, expanding the mobile and terrestrial lines to more than 116 million.
In 1999, the National Bank for Development spent approximately 37% of its
budget on infrastructure, while education and health services together only
received 2%.18
This is an example of where the government is more concerned
about updating technology than spending on human basic necessities. Even
though, more than half of the population will not be able to afford online access.

11
It must be acknowledged that although there are visible improvements in the
communication system with privatisation, they are just a consequence of the
system of communication as a profitable business, rather than supplying means
to attend a real social communication demands. That is, the rich once more
benefit from technological improvements while the poor still have to struggle in
order to overcome their basic needs.
Brazil is considered by The United Nations as the country with the most unequal
distribution of income in the world. There is an urge for the Brazilian government
to invest in the main basic infrastructure systems and technologies, such as
energy, education, water supply, hygiene, among others, in order to bridge the
gap between the ‘core’ and the ‘periphery’ without loosing sight of the
infrastructure of complementary systems (such as information and
communication technologies). By improving the basic systems it is possible to
reduce social exclusion, and then offer a complementary system to be absorbed
by the majority of the population. “Simple, obvious, recommendations such as
improvements in education at all levels in developing countries have proved
difficult to fulfil because of a lack of skilled personnel, funds and political will”.19
This difficulty is a central issue in Brazil. There is a need to answer the basic
problems before attempting to leap and tackle the technological issues for which
Brazil has no homogeneous structure to accommodate.
The scenario in Brazil is one of great divergence. On one hand there are some
initiatives to use information technology as a complementary aid in public
primary schools, in an attempt to follow the flux of the whole world. On the other
hand, there is no much work aimed at solving the peoples basic needs, which
leads to the question how a starving child would benefit from having such tools in
the school, or even, who will be able to teach the children without basic
knowledge of IT. However, with regards to the core, the scene is very similar to
the developments worldwide, where individuals have access to the necessary
technologies and information resources. This reinforces even more the social
internal difference in Brazil. This internal conflict is one that should be solved
beforehand in order to achieve a greater external benefit.
Even acknowledging all these facts, the Internet has an enormous potential,
which cannot be ignored. Brazil is a very competitive and consumer-focused

12
market, and as average access charges drop and with a great amount of dot-
com entrepreneur leading the way, access is growing faster than previously
forecasted. The concentration of the population in cities facilitates much of this
growth, for it is easier to delivery goods which have been ordered online,
enabling an adequate structure for e-commerce.
The World Employment Report 2001found that “Information and Communication
Technologies can have a far-reaching impact on the quality of life of workers in
poorer countries if the right policies and institutions are in place and serve as
important push forwards to development and job growth. In some cases, the high
mobility of ICT capital and its inherently knowledge-based nature may allow
lower income countries to "leapfrog" stages in traditional economic development
via investments in human resources. But for this to occur, three needs are most
important: a coherent national strategy toward ICT, the existence of an
affordable telecom infrastructure, and the availability of an educated
workforce”.
20
In the Brazilian case, although some initiatives already exist
independently of political will and government programmes, these three needs
stated in the World Employment Report 2001 are essential to be achieved in
order to solve internal differences pushing the whole country toward proper
development.
The world divide
It is estimate that in a world of 6 billion people, 1 billion live in complete misery
and another 2 billion eke out a life and rely on the bare essentials. More than 2
billion live at the bottom of the financial economy with incomes of less than
$5,000 a year. This part of the population can be considered as the world’s
periphery. In contrast, the world’s core is a minority, whose life standard enable
them the access to the latest technological facilities. According to the latest
surveys in March 2001(including business, educational and home Internet
users), almost 400 million people are already connected to the Internet, and 137
million of those are based in the United States.
21
This means that at the present,
94% of the World's population is still locked out of the Internet. The profile of the
worldwide Internet users are white, with a higher than average personal income,
high level of education and literacy, English speakers (80% of the web pages are

13
in English), they come from North America, Europe, and other few developed
regions.
Commentators currently define the most common political position expressed on
the Net as a sort of anarchist-capitalism, which is extremely individualist and has
lead to the spontaneous and anarchic growth of the medium. It is not a reflection
of the U.S.A. ideology, as it usually had been the case of all other
communication media, since it accommodates individual initiatives. However,
what does it imply for other cultures; the end of the impact of American cultural
dominance. China presents an interesting case to evaluate; the Internet is
growing very fast. We can see the contrast of the neo-liberal worldview in which
China expresses itself to the world through the possibility of its insertion in a
capitalist structure without a radical change in its socialist structure (although it
must acknowledge the impact of this insertion – cultural influence determined by
the globalisation which is based on the capitalist system) and the fact that the
internal structure of the Internet in China is not necessarily under the neo-
liberalist worldview. Contrary to the neo-liberalist worldview, economic progress
and citizen rights do not necessarily go hand in hand. “The Internet is in China,
but China is the only country in the world that is having some success in
controlling web sites and hook ups, although at the cost of impoverishing its
collective access to the world-wide net”.
22
With a population of 1.29 billion from which 2/3 lives in rural areas, the Peoples
Republic of China started in 1949 its major economic reforms and put education
at the top of it’s agenda. China has set up an education system with government
as its major investor. In the last two decades, China has made sound
achievements in bilateral and multilateral education co-operation, which has
received educational aid from UNESCO, UNIECF, UNDP, World Bank and many
other international organisations for education development programs.
23
Recently the rapid economic growth and the developments in science and
technology have been a major factor in China’s success. This is due to foreigner
investments along the urban coastal areas, allowing China to leap from a rural
based economy into an industrialised economy. As well as intensifying
competition in economic and technological fields it has addressed a tough
challenge in education. According to the Human Developing Report 2001, it has
achieved remarkable successes in reducing poverty, showing a drop from 260

14
million in 1978 to 42 million in 1998; this is particularly noticeable in rural areas.
According to Castells “Perhaps the most immediate concern is the massive rural
exodus provoked by modernization and privatisation of agriculture, which
estimated to affect about 200 million peasants during 1990s. A fraction of them
are being absorbed into the small towns being developed by the Chinese
government to stand the shock. Others are being employed in the new urban
economy, and in the factories and shops scattered in semi-rural areas. Many of
them (perhaps as many as 50 million) seem to be in the category of “floating
urban population” wandering around Chinese cities looking for work and
shelter”.
24
The question here is if these people who left the rural areas will be
absorbed and included in the new Chinese industrial-technological economy, or
they will be left on the periphery as in Brazil. However China is different from
Brazil, the Chinese government is concerned about education.
The average home Internet user in China is 30 years old, earns US $221.42 per
month, and is university educated. However, Internet usage is beginning to
increase outside of the wealthy educated elite, as more people with lower
incomes and different education levels begin to go online in China. While there
can be no doubt that the Internet in China is still dominated by those with higher-
than-average incomes and education levels, it is heartening to see that the digital
divide is quickly beginning to narrow. While individuals with a university degree
or at least some college education account for 72 percent of those using the
Internet at home, the survey also indicated an increasing number of users
among those with primary and secondary level education’s beginning to use the
Internet at home. This narrowing of the gap between the periphery and the core
may be seen as a consequence of the socialist regime in China.25
A way of understanding new class relationships, in the Marxian tradition, ”is
concerned with who the producers are and who appropriates the products of
their labour. If innovation is the main source of productivity, knowledge and
information are essential materials of the new production process, and education
is the key quality of labour, the new producers of informational capitalism are
those knowledge generator and information processors whose contribution is
most valuable to the firm, the region and the national economy.”26
These new
class relationships can be clearly seen having different approaches in China and
Brazil. In China, the essential basic infrastructure problems have already been

15
dealt with and new technologies find a more structured environment to spread
knowledge and information. Whilst in Brazil, the new class relationships have
not yet been absorbed, the environment is still essentially based on social
difference and the basic infrastructure is still focused on the exploitation of the
workforce which is directed to product, rather than on knowledge and processes.
Conclusion
Education, training, debt relief, democratisation, investment in infrastructures,
improved and cheaper telecommunications, all have a part to play in an eventual
narrowing of the social and informational gap. But the opportunities offered by
the Internet can also be identified as positive elements in an already unequal
world: clearly, the periphery has much to gain from increased access to
information.
The inequality, unstable social structure and the difficulties in accessing
information in order to receive knowledge were present before the development
of technologies such as Internet. These new technologies do not enlarge or
reduce the divide. What they can naturally do is to alert us to the urgency and
raise our consciousness of these inequalities, which are not only technological.
Actually there is no digital divide; the divide is social and cultural, which
consequently finds its digital implications.
As shown here it is not possible to leapfrog knowledge without infrastructure and
the promises of the Internet are not yet a reality for the Brazilian periphery.
However, as discussed here, through the examples of community initiatives
towards self-insertion in the core through the use of Internet, the “promises” of
the Internet are indeed becoming a potential reality in Brazil. The
democratisation of the basic infrastructure (social and cultural) can be mirrored in
the Chinese example.
The widening of the so-called Digital Divide is linked to a lack of technological
infrastructure, which is a consequence of the lack of a basic infrastructure.

16
According to GIIC “There is agreement that the solution to the Divide must come
from business and government in partnership. Unless business and government
leaders address these differences, investments will not be made in infrastructure
improvement and people in the underdeveloped economies will suffer”.
27
The
Chinese example shows that these investments are really necessary and that in
order to achieve an economic leapfrog there also needs to be a stable cultural
and social framework. Until now, this example indicates a possibility for a model
beyond the “brazilianisation” of the world.
Unfortunately, for many developing countries, to hope for political will of
governments and investments from private business is an uncertain wait. A
community sense must come from everyday ‘periphery’ in order to integrate the
marginalised within the ‘core’. The Internet is a two-way communication medium
where experiences are learnt and must be shared. People cannot work together
if they do not plan together, and they cannot plan together if they do not share
the same access to knowledge. Information can be disseminated; knowledge
cannot, so it cannot be leapfrogged. Knowledge involves social experience,
which is directly related to the collective cultural environment. This is at the heart
of any participatory process. Folk media is a great illustration of such process. It
contains that common knowledge and involves everyone because such media is
everyone's heritage. The process starts with qualitative research into the general
concerns, needs and constraints of the local people, their attitudes, behaviour,
cultural beliefs and their thoughts and feelings on a particular problem.
28
Human
development requires interaction, discussion and dialogue, the Internet promises
to assist in the flow of information without barriers; that is the ultimate hope.
Notes
1
CANE based in The Global Information Infrastructure Commission (GIIC) Report April 2001
(http://globalarchive.ft.com/globalarchive/articles.html?id=010418001246)
2
BARBROOK. Mistranslations: Lipietz Iin London and Paris
3
GIIC. Global Information Infrastructure Comission http://www.giic.org
4
http://www.mstbrazil.org
5
(IDRC, 1989: 18)
6
(IDRC, 1989: 18)
7
(IDRC, 1989: 18)
8
http://anf.org.br

17
9
http://www.rocinha.com.br/
10
http://www.favelatour.com.br/
11
http://www.mangueira.com.br/
12
http://www.radiofavelafm.com.br/
13
(Lipietz : 1997) http://perso.club-internet.fr/lipietz/INT/INT_FordistEn.html
14
(Lipietz: 1997) http://perso.club-internet.fr/lipietz/INT/INT_FordistEn.html
15
http://www.undp.org/hdro/99.htm
16
http://cyberatlas.internet.com/
17
18
http://idgnow.uol.com.br/idgnow/telecom/2001/02/0049 MARCh 2001
19
20
http://www.ilo.org/
21
http://www.nua.ie/surveys/how_many_online/index.html
22
(Castells : 1998- p301)
23
http://www.undp.org/hdro/99.htm
24
(Castells: 1998- p303)
25
http://cyberatlas.internet.com/
26
(Castells: 1998- p345)
27
28
http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/sustdev/DOdirect/DOengB05.htm
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4- Global Information Infrastructure Development (http://www.giic.org)
5- IDRC Reports, April 1989
6- DECOK Anamaria. Wireless Networks - March-April 1996
(http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/sustdev/DOdirect/DOengB05.htm)
7- News Agency of the Favelas (http://www.anf.org.br/english.htm)
8- “Top Nations in the Internet” - February 2001 (http://www.cyberatlas.com)
9- Global Information Infrastructure Comission – April 2001
(http://www.giic.org/focus/giidev/index.htm)
10- LIPIETZ Alain - The post-Fordist world: labour relations, international
hierarchy and global ecology - 1997
(http://perso.club-internet.fr/lipietz/INT/INT_FordistEn.html)

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11- Human Deveopment Report 1999 (http://www.undp.org/hdro/99.htm)
12- International Labour Organization 2001 (http://www.ilo.org)

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