The document outlines a course on Business and Development Communication, emphasizing the importance of clear communication in business settings and its role in social development. It details course objectives, topics to be covered in weekly sessions, and evaluation methods including assignments and exams. The course aims to equip students with the skills to understand and engage in effective communication practices within various media forms.

1. BUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION-OUTLINE
Programme:
Course Title: Business and Development Communication
Course Code: PAID121
Total Credits: 3
Total lecture Hours:
A. COURSE OVERVIEW AND OUTLINE
1. Course Description:
Communication, whatever method used, needs to inform. In the business environment writing
clearly, concisely, and comprehensible is critical to success. Development communication
refers to the strategic use of communication to alleviate social problems in the society. In this
course, participants will examine what business and Development communication is all about
and their importance. In addition to the above the role of communication in promoting
development through communication Meduims of the Third world countries in general will be
discussed.
2. Course Objectives: By the end of this course students should be able to:
 Pedagogic Objectives
o Understand what Business and development communication is all about
o Know how different forms of media are used for development communication.
 Learning Objectives………………….
o Discuss what Business and development communication and is all about
o Explain how different forms of media are used for development communication.
3. Course Schedule and Topics:
This course will cover the following topics in …. (no.) learning sessions with one session per
week as follows:
4. Course Schedule and Topics:
Week 1: Session 1/Chapter 1: Definition of Communication and its Characteristics
Date:
Topics:
 Definition of Communication,
 The processes of Communication
 Barriers of Communications
Week 2: Session 2/Chapter 2: Introduction to Business Communication
Date:
Topics:
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2.  Definition of Communication, characteristics, and importance of business
communication
 Features of communication
Week 3: Session 3/Chapter 3- Development Communication
Date:
Topics:
 Definition of Development and Communication
 Evolution and Concept of Development Communication
Week 4: Session 4/Chapter 4 – Business Communication through Writing: Business
Letters
 The Business Letter
 Different types of letter, letter format and forms
 Memoranda and notices
Week 5: Session 5/Chapter 5 - Uses of Development Communication and Case Studies
Date:
Topics:
 Channels for Development Communication
 Case Studies
5. Course Review and Final Exam
6. Other requirements
1. Required Textbook and Materials: (provide titles for y text books that you will be using
for the course and/or website links to soft books that your student can download)
2. Software Requirements/Installation:
Provide a link to any software that will be useful for your course so that your student can
download and install in their computers. If your course doesn’t require any special
software, then the option below is applicable
C. COURSE EVALUATION
 Written Assignment 15%
 Graded Quiz 10%
 Discussion Assignment 5%
 Final Exams taken On-campus 70% Total 100%
D. COURSE NOTES PRESENTATION
(Please present and/or arrange your notes using this format so that it can be convenient for
use for online lectures and also for publishing as book chapters)
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3. Week 1: Session 1/Chapter 1: Definition of Communication and its Characteristics
Date:
Topics:
 Definition of Communication,
 The processes of Communication
 Barriers of Communications
1.0 Introduction to Communication
Communication is an important element in the life of humain. For human to be able to
understand one another, they must communicate. Before we look at the context in which
communications take place and identify all the elements which contribute to successful
communication it is imperative that we examine what communication is all about. This week or
this session examines what communication is, elements of communication and Barriers to
communication.
1.1 Pedagogic Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should beable to:
 Understand what communication is all about
1.2 Learning Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
 Define what communication is and its processes
 Discuss how to over come barriers to communication
1.3 Topics
 Definition of Communication,
 The Elements of Communication
 Barriers to Communications
Introduction
Communication is one of those things we deal with every day, so most of us assume we know
quite a bit about it. Before we turn our attention to some of the basic facts about
communication , and some advice on how to deal with those realities, we need to look at what
communication is all about.
What is communication?
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4. There exist various kinds of definition for communication, as there are different disciplines.
While some definitions are human centred, others are not. There is no single definition of
communication agreed upon by scholars. Psychologists, sociologists, medical practitioners,
philosophers and communication specialists, all define communication based on their
orientations and perspectives. Communication is from a Latin word COMMUNIS, which means
common or shared understanding. According to Schramm 1965, Communication is therefore
a purposeful effort to establish commonness between a source and receiver. Hybels and
Weaver II, 2001; Baran 2003; has defined communication as the process of creating shared
meaning. We will define communication here as the process of exchanging or sharing
information, ideas and feeling between the sender and the receiver with feetback. It involves
not only the spoken and written word by also body language, personal mannerisms, and style -
anything that adds meaning to a message
Types of Communication
 Verbal
o Oral
o Written
o E-mail
 Nonverbal
o Expressions
o Gestures
o Body language
Basic elements of communication
 Message
 Understanding
 Feedback
Communication Process
4
Feedback
RECEIVER
SENDER
Decoding
Channel
Medi
a
Message
Encoding
Ideas, Information or
Opinion
Understandin
g

5. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication has three parts: a sender, a message and a receiver. When you want to
communicate, be it internally or externally, you will find that all three parts change from one
situation to the other.
The elements of Communications
Elements of Communication
Communication as a system means that it works through interrelated set of elements. We can
identify about seven elements that are involved in communication process. They are:
1. Stimulus: This is the impulse that triggers off the communication exchange. It takes place at
the ideation stage of communication. We can also call it the reason one has for
communicating, which may be to inform, educate, entertain etc.
2. Source: This is the person who begins the communication process. He is the one triggered
by the stimulus and from him begins the communication activity. He could be referred to as the
initiator, encoder or sender. He is the initiator because he begins the communication process.
As the encoder, he packages the message in a way that it can be communicated and as the
sender when he passes across the message by himself.
3. Message: This could be the idea, feelings, information, thought, opinion, knowledge or
experience etc. that the source/sender wants to share.
4. Medium/Channel: Medium and channel are generally used interchangeably. But here, a
distinction is made between the two. Medium could be regarded as the form adopted by the
sender of the message to get it to the receiver. It could be oral or written form. The channel
then is the pathway, route or conduit through which the message travels between the source
and the receiver e.g. the channel of radio, television, newspaper, telephone etc. Channel
provides a link that enables the source and the receiver to communicate. It may also be seen
in term of the five physical senses- sight, sound, touch, taste and smell-through which
messages can be sent, received, understood, interpreted and acted upon.
5. Receiver: This is the person to whom the message is sent. He is the target audience or the
recipient of the message. All the source/sender effort to communicate is to inform or affect the
attitude of the receiver. That is why communication must be receiver-centred.
6. Feedback: This is the response or reaction of the receiver to the message sent.
Communication is incomplete without feedback. It confirms that the message is well received
and understood. Feedback guides the source in communication process and helps him to
know when to alter or modify his message if not properly received. A feedback is positive when
it shows that the message has been well received and understood and it could be negative
when it shows that the intended effect has not been achieved.
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6. 7. Noise: Noise is interference that keeps a message from being understood or accurately
interpreted. It is a potent barrier to effective communication. Noise may be in different form:
a. Physical Noise: This comes from the environment and keeps the message from being heard
or understood. It may be from loud conversations, side-talks at meetings, vehicular sounds,
sounds from workmen’s tools etc.
b. Psychological Noise: This comes from within as a result of poor mental attitude,
depression, emotional stress or disability.
c. Physiological Noise: Results from interference from the body in form of body
discomforts, feeling of hunger, tiredness etc
d. Linguistic Noise: This is from the source’s inability to use the language of
communication accurately and appropriately. It may be a grammatical noise manifested in
form of defects in the use of rules of grammar of a language, and faulty sentence structure. It
may be semantic as in the wrong use of words or use of unfamiliar words, misspelling, etc.
And it could also be phonological manifested in incorrect pronunciation.
Barriers to Communications
Barriers to Communication: on one or both sides (encoder s and decoder s):
‟ ‟
 Lack of knowledge
 Lack of interest or attention
 Lack in communication skills (language use, analytical thinking)
 Lack of charm, self-confidence, sensitivity, perceptiveness, objectiveness and
patience; tense, uneasy personality, inflexibility
 Bias, prejudice, or preconceived ideas
 Distractions
 Competition for attention
 Differences in perception
 Attitudes
 Lack of motivation
 Physical/mental handicaps
 Stress
All of the above barriers to communication may be classed into two broad categories:
A) Distortion resulting from inadequate use of language (incorrect grammar, syntax, overuse
of technical/obscure words, ambiguity, etc.) and other communication skills (analytical
approach to/understanding of decoders and the context/ environment within which
communication is taking place, choice of appropriate medium and channel of communication).
B) Noise, or interference:
 Physical noise – actual noise that may drown the communication
 “Technical noise” – a failure in the channel of communication
(breakdown of technology/equipment, etc.)
 “Social noise” – personality differences due to upbringing; difference in
perceptions/mentality due to diverse cultural, religious, educational, etc. backgrounds,
bias due to age, sex, social class, status, etc.
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7. 
 “Psychological noise” – excessive/uncontrolled emotions (anger, fear, etc.),
prejudice, stress, nervous tension, etc.
Overcoming Barriers to Communication:
 Defining the purpose of communication
 Timing and means of communication (When and how to communicate)
 Understanding the receiver
 Personal communication skill
1.4 References
Mensch, Kirk and Myra Dingman. eds. 2010. Ka-bar Leader Development: Leadership on the
Cutting Edge. McGraw-Hill.
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis. Business Communication for the Information
Age. Harcourt Brace Jovanovisch, Publishers 19988
1.5 Tasks
1.6 Reading Assignment/Suggested Readings:
Mensch, Kirk and Myra Dingman. eds. 2010. Ka-bar Leader Development: Leadership on the
Cutting Edge. McGraw-Hill.
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis. Business Communication for the Information
Age. Harcourt Brace Jovanovisch, Publishers 19988
Reading Assignment Supplementary source
Written Assignment
After identifying measures in overcoming communication barriers, in your point of view, how
far is the effectiveness of these measures in practice in your organisation?
Graded Quiz:
Exercises
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1. Each basic function of management requires effective communication skills.
2. Communication depends on the ability to deliver messages and not in receiving messages.
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8. Week 2: Session 2/Chapter 2-Introduction to Business Communication
2.0 Introduction to Business Communication
In order to achieve effective business communications you must understand the context in
which communications take place and identify all the elements which contribute to successful
communication This week or this session begins by looking at what business communication is
all about, considering the nature of communication in business organisations and move on to
examine the basic principles of the communication process and finally culminates with the key
factors which influence the effectiveness or otherwise of communication.
2.1.Pedagogic Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should beable to:
 Understand what business communication entails
2.2.Learning Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
 Discuss what business communication is all about
 List the characteristics and importance of Business communication
2.3 Topics
 Definition of Business communication
 characteristics, and importance of business communication
Introduction
Regardless of the type of organization, communication is the element that maintains and
sustains relationships in it. Communication with your co-workers, supervisor,
stakeholders,clients and the entire public will be a major determinant of how satisfied you are
with your work, clients, and how satisfied others are with your work.
What is Business communication
An office may be what comes to mind when You hear the word business communication
mentioned. The words business communication mean more than this. Business
communication is used daily by almost everyone in a variety of ways. Many of the tasks that
you as a student may take for granted-such as speaking on the telephone to order concert
tickets, preparing reports or announcements for after-school activities, or writing letters to
request information-are forms of business communication. General communication is
different from business communication /Administrative communication. To Michael
and Kenneth 1988, the transmittal or exchange of information between or among
individuals is called communication and transmittal or exchange of any information that
deals primarily with business is called business communication. According to William
Scott in his book organizational theory “Administrative communication is a process which
involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the
purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals”
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9. Business communication utilizes a variety of important skills, such as reading, writing,
speaking , listening and nonverbal communication. For example each time you Write letters to
request for services, order goods and reports, you are using writing skill. Each time you
answer the telephone, speaking and listening skills are being employed. Smile and frown
toward a client or as a reaction to a salesperson’s message are nonverbal communication.
Communication in Organisation
Whether an organization is large, small or virtual, sharing information among its parts and with
the outside world is the glue that binds the organization together. When you join a company,
you become a link in its information chain. Whether you’re a top manager or an entry-level
employee, you have information that others need in order to perform their jobs, and others
have information that is crucial to you. To succeed organization must share information with
people both inside and outside the company. It includes the internal and external structure
through which messages pass and the way information is presented, as well as the actual
content of the messages themselves. As you exchange information with people inside and
outside the organization you use a variety of formal and informal forms of communication.
People function in society as individuals and in organized groups, such as family, clan, school,
community, professional associations, trade unions, etc. Organization, according to one of
the meanings given in the Oxford Dictionary, is an organized body of people; an
organized system. Just like an organism (a living being, an individual animal or plant), it
is an individual entity functioning as a unit. Examples: Telikom, Microsoft, Netscape, The
National, Pepsi, Coca-Cola, the Government, the military, the air force, the navy, etc. Just like
an organ (a distinct part of an animal or plant body, adapted for a particular function, i.e.,
digestive organs) in the larger body of human society, every organization carries out a specific
function –be it educational, business, government or religious. To make our analogy more
vivid, individuals are like single cells in the body of human society, whereas organizations are
like organs with their specific functions.
Richmond and McCroskey (2009) describe Organisational communication as ‘the process by
which individuals stimulate meaning in the minds of other individuals, by means of verbal and
nonverbal messages in the context of a formal organisation’. In an organisation,
communication is very important in order to ensure that the message to be delivered reaches
the receiver.
Types of Organisational Communication
Figure 1: shows three types of communication that are used in organisations:
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10. Organizations communicate internally by both formal and informal means. Formal
communication is official communication between organizational members. The
communication flows both vertically and horizontally. Vertical communication is the “flow of
information between people at different organizational levels” (Mensch and Dingman 2010,
439), with messages going both ways –downward (from leadership to workers) and upward
(from workers, toward the leadership)
In contrast, horizontal communication “flows among coworkers and between different work
units;” its main purposes tend to be coordination and collaboration (Mensch and Dingman
2010, 440).
Informal Communication encompasses what is typically known as “the grapevine.” The
grapevine is the unofficial way that messages make their way through an organization. Several
key actors, such as gossips (active in passing information through the grapevine) and moles
(obtain and use information informally to increase their own power) propagate and utilize
informal communication media. (Mensch and Dingman 2010, 440).
External communication
The role of external communication is fundamental to the image and reputation of any
organisation, as it forms the opinions of clients and consumers alike. It’s important for external
communication to convey a positive image based on experience, skill and innovation. The
external communication network links the organization with the outside world of customers ,
suppliers , competitors , and investors , journalists , and community representatives.
Sometimes this external communication is carefully orchestrated – especially during a crisis.
At other times it occurs informally as part of routine business operations.
Formal external communication : Companies use external communication to create a
favorable impression. Whether by letter , website , phone , fax , internet , or videotape , good
communication is the first step in creating a favorable impression. Carefully constructed
letters , reports , memos , oral presentation , and websites convey an important message to
outsiders about the quality of your organization. Messages such as statements to the press ,
letters to investors , advertisements , price increase announcements and litigation updates
require special care because of their delicate nature. Therefore , such documents are often
drafted by a marketing or public relations team – a group of individuals whose sole job is
creating and managing the flow of formal messages to outsiders. The public relations team is
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11. also responsible for helping management plan for and respond to crises – which can range
from environmental accidents or sabotage situations to strikes , massive product failure , major
litigation , or even an abrupt change in management. To minimize the impact of any crisis ,
expert communicators advise managers to communicate honestly , openly , and often. If
handled improperly , a crises can destroy a company’s reputation.
Target Audience of External Communication (Stakeholders)
External communication of business institutions are directed at the institution´s external
stakeholders and the general public. An external stakeholder is anyone that is directly
engaged with the institution/Organisation/ who is directly or indirectly affected by the
institution`s activities but not a member of the institution in question.
The target audiences of external communication activity will depend on business institution
specific factors. They will be very different if the business institution
 Serves only one community in its own country with a few volunteers and is funded by
small donations by individuals
 Serves communities in many countries around the world, offers diverse services, is
funded by the private and public sector and additionally earns its own income
The beliefs and actions of stakeholders can have a direct impact on the operations of business
institutions. Communicating with and involving stakeholders is often required to ensure a
stable relationship between institutions and the adjacent community. Communication and
stakeholder involvement should occur as part of the normal operations of business institutions
and be highlighted (and often adjusted) when a major decision is being considered (such as
expanding a programme or changing a policy, procedure and process) or in times of crisis.
History shows us that when communication and stakeholder involvement is nonexistent or
reactive, the results can include long court battles, demonstrations of protest at the gates,
boycotts, environmental damage, and business institutions closures. An active approach leads
to decision processes that generally proceed with less difficulty and greater benefit for
everyone involved.
Purpose of Business Communications
No organization exists solely in isolation with one member who has no contact with anyone or
anything. The exchange of ideas, information or instructions is a fundamental feature of all
organizations. This exchange may take place internally between different sectors or
departments, or externally with other organizations. The purpose of business communications
is to understand more fully how this process functions most effectively. At an individual level,
using the correct formats for letters, memos, reports, or the correct language or approach in
oral presentations, telephone calls, meetings or interviews, will be an accurate representation
of how an organisation organises and communicates.
Information can enter an organization in a variety of ways: personal experience of staff;
newspapers and print media; television; from customers and competitors. How information is
transmitted externally and utilized effectively internally will be crucial to the organization’s
success.
The main focus of business communications is to:
(a) Give out information;
(b) Make your ideas understood;
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12. (c) Initiate some action;
(d) Share ideas, attitudes, beliefs;
(e) Establish links with other people
Characteristics of Business communication
According to Michael and Kenneth 1988, the best way to understand the language of business
communication is to understand first what this language is not. Business communication
language is not the informal language we use with friends and relatives. Such informal
language contains nonstandard English. The later contends that Standard English is the
language that is generally accepted by and understood by all people who speak English and
Good business communication always uses standard English and has the following
characteristics:
 Good Business communication avoids the use of slang
 It uses complete sentence
 Uses clear language
 Avoids prejudice
 Avoids assumption and accusation
 And it is concise.
In addition to these characteristics the following points below are also considered common
basic characteristics of effective business messages:
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS MESSAGES
Effective business messages have common basic characteristics
1. Provide practical information : Business messages usually describe how to do
something , explain why a procedure was changed , highlight the cause of a problem or a
possible solution , discuss the status of a project , or explain why a new piece of equipment
should be purchased.
2. Give facts rather than impression : Business messages use concrete language and
specific details. Information must be clear , convincing , accurate and ethical. You must
present hard evidence ( not just opinion ) and present all sides of an argument before you
commit to a conclusion.
3. Clarify and condense information : Business messages frequently use tables , charts ,
photos , or diagrams to clarify or condense information , to explain a process , or to emphasize
important information.
4. State precise responsibilities : Business messages are directed to a specific audience.
Therefore , you must clearly state what is expected of , or what you can do for, that particular
audience.
5. Persuade others and offer recommendations : Business messages frequently persuade
employers , customers , or clients to purchase a product or service or adopt a plan of action.
To be effective , persuasive messages must show readers just how a product, service or idea
will benefit them specifically.
2.4. Review Question
1.What are three purpose of business communication?
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13. 2.What is the language of business communication all about?
3.Name seven characteristics of good business communication
2.5. References
Mensch, Kirk and Myra Dingman. eds. 2010. Ka-bar Leader Development: Leadership on the
Cutting Edge. McGraw-Hill.
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis. Business Communication for the Information
Age. Harcourt Brace Jovanovisch, Publishers 19988
2.6 Tasks
2.7 Reading Assignment/Suggested Readings:
Mensch, Kirk and Myra Dingman. eds. 2010. Ka-bar Leader Development: Leadership on the
Cutting Edge. McGraw-Hill.
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis. Business Communication for the Information
Age. Harcourt Brace Jovanovisch, Publishers 19988
Reading Assignment Supplementary source
Graded Quiz:
Exercises
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1. Each basic function of management requires effective communication skills.
2. Communication depends on the ability to deliver messages and not in receiving messages.
3.Communication systems of organisations can move downwards, upwards and horizontally.
4. The grapevine can become a source of information for managers.
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14. Week 3: Session 3/Chapter 3: Concepts of Communication, Development and Development
Communication.
3.0 Introduction to the Concepts of Communication, Development and Development
Communication
The relevance of communication to development is an established paradigm in development
studies. This week or this session examines what communication, development and
development communication is all about.
3.1.Pedagogic Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
 Define and explain what communication, Development and Development
Communication is all about
3.2.Learning Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should:
 Discuss and explain what communication, Development and Development
Communication is all about
3.3 Topics
 The Concepts of Communication,
 Development and Development Communication.
INTRODUCTION
The relevance of communication to development is an established paradigm in development
studies. It is borne out of the realisation that development is human-centred and thus requires
communication for its full realisation. FAO (1994) points out that “communication is the key to
human development and the thread that binds people together”. This corroborates Moemeka’s
(1991) view that development efforts cannot be successful without planned communication
because its flow determines the direction and pace of dynamic social development. It is the
agglutination of communication and development that birthed the word development
communication. It is to emphasize the kind of communication that is done for development
purposes. It is also known as communication for development. Some scholars call it
communication in development, while others refer to it as "development support
communication", that is, communication in support communication of development.
These nomenclatures establish that there is a close relationship between communication
and development.
What is Development?
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15. Rogers 1976 sees development as a widely participatory process of social change in a society,
intended to bring about social and material advancement (including greater equality, freedom,
and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people through their gaining control over their
environment. Rogers stressed the endogenous dimension of development. It must be through
people's participation, exploiting their own environment to improve their situation rather than
expecting development to "fall from heaven" as it were. Inayatullah (cited in Soola 2003:13),
for example, says “development is change toward patterns of society that allow better
realization of human values, that allow a society greater control over its environment and over
its political destiny, and that enables its individuals to gain increased control over themselves”.
Moemeka (1991) observes that:...the two definitions show that development is a multifaceted
concept. It generally means different things to different people, ranging from the psychologist's
preoccupation with individual or personality variables as self reliance, achievement motivation,
self worth and self- actualization, to the communicator's concern for acquisition of new
knowledge and skills, increased self confidence, control over oneself and one's environment,
greater equality, freedom, ability to understand one's potentials and limitations, and willingness
to work hard enough to improve on existing conditions (p.4).
Todar and Smith (2003) stresses that development involves both the quality and quantity of
life. Quality of life refers to opportunities and availability of social, health and educational
concerns. Quantity of life involves the amount of economic and political participation of the
people. This definition shifts the attention and aim of development away from an economic to a
more humanizing conceptualised one. In line with this, Oladipo (1996:1) notes that
development is: a process of economic and social advancement which enables people to
realize their potentials, build self- confidence and lead lives of dignity and fulfilment. It is a
process aimed at freeing people from evils of want, ignorance, social injustice and economic
exploitation. Todar and Smith (2003) identify three objectives of development as follows:
1. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods such
as food, shelter, health and protection.
2. To raise levels of living in addition to higher incomes, the provision of more jobs, better
education, and greater attention to cultural and human values, all of which will serve not only
enhance material well-being but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem.
3. To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and
nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to other people
and nation- states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.
Development Communication
Development communication can be looked at from two perspectives in terms of the use of
communication channels. The narrower concept of "development journalism" refers to the use
of mass communication (the mass media) in the promotion of development. Development
communication on the other hand is broader in shape and makes use of all forms of
communication in the development process. In other words, it employs not only the mass
media, but also interpersonal channels, group or public means of communication and the
traditional channels of communication.
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16. Quebral 1975, cited in Anaeto & Anaeto 2010, defines development communication as the art
and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and
the mass of its people from a state of poverty to a more dynamic state of economic growth
which make possible greater social equality and the larger fulfillment of the human potentials.
It is observed that development communication is a purposeful communication effort geared
towards realisation of human potentials and transformation from a bad situation to a good one.
That is why Moemeka 1991, defines development communication as the application of the
process of communication to the development process.
Coldevin 1987 notes that development communication mobilises people to participate in
development activities. He defines development communication as "the systematic utilisation
of appropriate communication channels and techniques to increase people's participation in
development and to inform, motivate, and train rural populations, mainly at the grassroots
level. This is in line with Balifs (1988:13) definition, which sees development communication as
a social process aimed at producing a common understanding or a consensus among the
participants in a development initiative.
Some definitions specifically emphasise on social change. Okunna 2002, sees development
communication as the entire process of communication with a specific group of people who
require development (target audience), with the purpose of achieving the social change that
should change their lives in a positive way, thus giving them better living conditions. A similar
point was emphasised by Middleton and Wedeneyer (1985), describing development
communication as any series of planned communication activities aimed at individual and
social change; and by Rogers (1976:93)
As for the expression "development communication", it was apparently first used in the
Phillippines in the 1970 by Professor Nora Quebral to designate the process for transmitting
and communicating new knowledge related to rural environments (Srampickal, 2006). The
fields of knowledge were then extended to all those likely to help improve the living conditions
of the disadvantaged people.
The concepts of communication and development are central to our understanding of
development communication. In development communication, the main reason of
communication is to bring about or expedite the process of development. Communication is
necessary for development because it helps to mobilise people's participation. Communication
is a common denominator for development and participation. It is for this reason that the FAO
says that communication is the key to human development and the thread that binds people
together (1994:5).
3.4 Review Question
1.How would you define development communication based on your own understanding of
what it is?
2..Why do people need to participate in the development process meant for them?
16

17. 3.5 References
Suggested Readings/References
Balit, S. (1988). Rethinking Development Support Communication.
Development Communication Report, 62.
Baran, S. J. (2009). Introduction to mass communication: Media Literacy and Culture (3rd
ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Coldevin, G. (1987). Perspectives on Communication for Rural
Development. Rome: FAO.
FAO (1994). Communication. A Key to Human Development. Rome: FAO.
Hybels, S. & Weaver II (2001).Communicating Effectively. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Middleton, J. & Wedeneyer, D. J. (1985). Methods Of Communication Planning. London:
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Moemeka, A. A. (1991). Perspectives on Development Communication. Module on
Development Communication. Nairobi: ACCE pp 15- 30.
Okunna. C. S. (2002). A Quick Look at Development Communication. In C. S. Okunna (ed.).
Teaching Mass Communication: A Multi- Dimensional Approach. Enugu: New Generation
Books.
Oladipo, E.O. (1996). The Theory, Concept and Practice Of Sustainable Human Development.
Lagos: UNDP.
Quebral, N. C. (1975). Development Communication. In Jamias, J. F. (ed) Readings in
Development Communication. Los Banos: Department of Development Communication,
College of Agriculture, University of Philipines, Los Banos College, Laguna. Pp1-12.
Rogers. E. M. (1976). Communication and Development: The Passing of the Dominant
Paradigm. In E. M. Rogers (ed.) Communication and Development: Critical Perspectives.
Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Schramm, W. (1964). Mass Media and National Development. Stanford: Stanford University
Press.
Srampickal, S.J. (2006). Development and Participatory Communication. Communication
Research Trends Vol.25 (2). Pontificia Università Gregoriana. Rome, Italy.
3.6 Tasks
3.7 Reading Assignment/Suggested Readings:
Written Assignment
Example:
17

18. 1.Development efforts cannot be successful without planned communication. Do you agree?
Why?
Week 4: Session 4/Chapter 4 -Business Communication through Writing: Business
Letters, Memoranda, Curriculum Vitea
4.0 Introduction to Communication through Writing
This week or this session introduces participants to business communication through writings
and the different forms/ types of written communication in the professional world. It further looks
at /explains the different forms/ways of communicating in a formal and informal settings
4.1Pedagogic Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
 Explain the difference between a formal and informal letter
 Understand the component of a memo, a curriculum vitea and a report
4.2.Learning Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
 Write Business Letters, Memoranda, and Curriculum Viteas
4.3. Topics
 The Business Letter
 Different types of letter, letter format and forms
 Memoranda and notices
 The report
Letter Writing
Introduction
People communicate every day by telephone, computer e-mail, the Internet, and the "fax"
machine, where an exact copy of any document is transferred thousands of miles over
telephone cables. Does anyone still write letters?
The answer is a strong and definite, yes. Letter writing is still important. It is sometimes easier
to write down our feelings and thoughts than it is to speak them. It also remains less expensive
to mail a letter to family or friends than to call long distance or pay for access to a computer
and e-mail. For conducting personal business, such as requesting services from a company,
18

19. complaining about products, applying for employment, and contacting the editor of a local
newspaper, letters remain the best and most effective way of getting the message across.
People write million of letters every day throughout the world. Letters are sent to convey
goodwill, to educate, to notify, to acknowledge, and to request. Individual letters sent for any of
these reasons may have an informal or a formal tone. The tone of a letter is the attitude that
the writer expresses through his or her style or way of writing. Messages require different
tones. The tone of a formal letter is different from that of an informal letter To create an
effective letter, writer needs three sets of skills:
• A good knowledge of mechanics (spelling, grammar, etc.)
• The ability to structure good sentences and paragraphs
• A familiarity with the conventions readers have come to expect when reading letters.
What is a letter?
A letter is a form of written communication between two persons or two parties on a particular
topic, matter, issue, incident, etc. It serves the purpose of documentation as well.
Advantages
Letters, unlike phone calls, have several advantages. First, they provide a permanent record of
what was said.
Second, the writer has the time to carefully compose the message, and the reader has the
time to read it and reread it until the message is clear. As well, a letter can be kept on file and
used as many times as necessary. Other forms of communication may not offer this
advantage.
In the business world, letter writing continues to play a vital role. Letters flow regularly between
offices, companies, and other organizations.
Anyone can write a letter; however, it is important to learn how to write an effective letter, one
that ensures that you will get what you want. You need to be taken seriously. You need to
make yourself understood.
Types of Letters
Certain styles of letters are required for certain occasions. When deciding what style of letter to
write, consider the purpose of the letter, and the audience of the letter.
If you are writing to a friend about your new job, for example, you would write an informal
letter. If you are writing to personality/hierachy or an institution to complain about their
services, you would write a Formal letter.
Formal Letter
A formal letter is a letter to a business partner, college or any professionals. A formal letter
should be brief, concise, clear, courteous and tactful. In English there are a number of
conventions that should be used when writing a formal or business letter. Most formal letters
have basic parts, and these parts are always arranged in a set order.
Knowing how to write a correct and effective letter is one of the best skills any employee can
have, no matter what his/her work assignment is. Letters like paragraphs have three main
sections: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
19

20. The introduction consists of the
• heading (the sender’s return address) date (the month, day, year on which the letter
was prepared)
• inside address (the name and address of the receiver)
• salutation (a greeting like Dear Ms.)
The body of the letter contains the message the writer needs to send.
1) Your Address
The return address should be written in the top right-hand corner of the letter.
2) The Address of the person you are writing to
The inside address should be written on the left, starting below your address.
Date Line:
The date line of a letter is the month, day, and year a letter is written. The dateline is important
in all business letters because it is a record of when a message was prepared. If letter head is
used, the date line should usually be typed three lines below the letter heading
Different people put the date on different sides of the page. You can write this on the right or
the left on the line after the address you are writing to. Write the month as a word.
Salutation or greeting:
1) Dear Sir or Madam,
If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It is always advisable to
try to find out a name.
2) Dear Mr Jenkins,
If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and the surname only. If you
are writing to a woman and do not know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for
married and single women.
Ending a letter:
1) Yours faithfully
If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
2) Yours sincerely
If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
3) Your signature
Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If you think the person you are writing
to might not know whether you are male of female, put you title in brackets after your name.
Content of a Formal Letter
First paragraph
The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to make an enquiry,
complain, request something, etc.
The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should contain the relevant information
behind the writing of the letter. Most letters in English are not very long, so keep the
20

21. information to the essentials and concentrate on organising it in a clear and logical manner
rather than expanding too much.
Last Paragraph
The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect the recipient to take-
to refund, send you information, etc.
Abbreviations Used in Letter Writing
The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:
 asap = as soon as possible
 cc = carbon copy (when you send a copy of a letter to more than one person, you use
this abbreviation to let them know)
 enc. = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter)
 pp = per procurationem (A Latin phrase meaning that you are signing the letter on
somebody else's behalf; if they are not there to sign it themselves, etc)
 ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you've finished and signed it)
 to (informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other person knows the letter
continues on the other side of the page)
 RSVP = please reply
Furthermore, you try to write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter
longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal language like contractions.
Layout/Outline of the Letter
• The Full Block Format
• The Semi Block Format
• The Indented Format
Formal letters seem to have a variety of patterns but there are three which will be
recommended here since there are accepted in most institutions.
a) The Full Block Format
In this style every part of the letter is justified flush left, from writer’s address to enclosures
(making it look business-like). Also, the paragraphs are marked by skipping a line. It is
however, advisable to use this format mostly when typing on letter headed paper.
b)The Semi Block Format
This is simply a modified version of the block format used for personal formal letters.
Everything except the address of the originator is justified along the left margin while the
sender’s address is flush on the top right corner of the page.
c)The Indented Format
This is particularly recommended for handwritten letters. Not only are the paragraphs indented,
beginning a few spaces (two) from the left margin, but the closing (with signature, name, and
title) also has to align with the heading (writer’s address)
Types of Formal Letters
21

22. We are now going to look at the three types of formal letters: application, complaint, and
request. The parts and the structure for all formal letters are as shown above. Therefore, in
this section we are concerned only with the content of each type.
An Application Letter
The Introduction: In writing the subject/heading of an application letter, it should be brief and
precise rather than vague. Therefore, it is not good to say: An application for a Job or An
Application for permission. Rather, Say An Application for the Post of an Accountant or
Permission for Study Leave. This is usually bold, underlined and title in case.
The introduction has one function-to state the purpose of the letter and your reason for writing
it. Indicate what post you wish to get and say if you are responding to an advert or
announcement while specifying the source. E.G. I write to take up the position of General
Manager as advertised in The Post Newspaper of ---
The Body
In paragraph one you should back up your claim why you should be employed. Following the
requirements outlined by the employer, give a summary of your education, professional
training and working experience (and capacity in which you have worked), with the period (s)
and institution(s); leave the details to be seen on the C.V to which you refer him/her. Answer
any question(s) in the advert.
Paragraph two on the other hand should concentrate on what the employer needs, proving to
him/her that with the skills and abilities. e.g easy at making friends and able to work with
people of all temperaments with tact (presented in point form) which you are bringing to that
post, you are obviously part of the solution and that you have come to help them.
Add enthusiasm to the skills by showing with specific reason(s) that you really wish to work for
them. You would help yourself more if you find out (through questions, newspaper, or internet)
some of the problems the company/organization could be facing so that you can get ready to
solve them. This could be why you’re leaving your present job---- for an opportunity to explore
your talents.
The Conclusion
Make yourself available to discuss the goal of the company and how you can help achieve
them, or state your readiness for an interview at their convenience, or promise to check on
them to find out the development if you don’t hear from them within a certain time. Enclose
supporting documents.
Vacancies/position are advertised on the radio or published in a newspaper, however, most at
times, position are not advertise and people are required to write spontaneous application
offering their services and skills
The Complaint Letter
A Complaint letter just like the name, is letters about dissatisfaction i.e something really bad
that u wish to complain about. Nevertheless, this does not mean you should be rude, harsh, in
your letter of complaint. Communicate your complain or dissatisfaction in a tactful and polite
manner. Always keep a copy of your letter until the complaint has been addressed because
you may have to make reference to it latter. If the problem persists without attention you may
take a firm stand on the issues. Therefore, your tone in the initial letter has to be moderate-
polite.
22

23. In the introduction of the complaint letter, specify the exact problem and state when it occurred
or for how long it has been going on.
The body
Paragraph one in the body should describe the problem accurately, giving specific details as to
how it occurs (occurred). These are examples to support your claim.
Paragraph two should assess the damage caused and/or what negative consequences it could
have on you/your organization, etc. if not properly handled.
If you have tried to solve the problem before, the last paragraph should explain the strategies
that were used and the results.
Conclusion
Ask for help in solving the problem. Request a specific solution but be reasonable enough to
explain alternative solutions if such are acceptable.
The Request Letter
Introduction
 You could write a letter to request that your marks be corrected.
 You could write to request for permission to be absent from a class
 You could write to request that a particular good be supplied to you supermarket
 You could write to request that you be authorized to sanction a recalcitrant subordinate
etc
The Inquiry Letter
Letter of inquiry may be solicited or unsolicited. You often write the first type as a consumer
requesting information about an advertised product. You can expect such a letter to be
welcomed, because the reader stands to benefit from your interest. In this case, you can afford
to be brief: “please send me you brochure on…..” or some such.
Many of your inquiries will be unsolicited, that is not in response to an advertisement, but
requesting information for a report or project. Here, you are asking your reader to do you a
favour. He must take time to read a letter, considering your request, collect the information,
and write a response. You therefore need to do the following:
a. Apologize for any imposition
b. Express appreciation
c. State a reasonable request clearly and briefly
d. Focus your questions-avoid general questions
e. Make your request several weeks before the due date, politely indicating the due date.
Structuring the Inquiry
Like most good communication, a routine inquiry has an introduction, body, and conclusion.
a. Introduction: Introduce yourself and state your purpose. Your reader should know who
wants information and why.
b. Body: Write specific and clearly worded questions that are easy to understand and
answer. If you have several questions, list them rather than dumping them in one or two
23

24. paragraphs. Number each question, and separate it from the others. If there are more
than five questions, consider attaching a questionnaire.
c. Conclusion: Conclude by explaining how you plan to use the information and, if possible
how your reader might benefit if you have not done so earlier, specify a date by which
you need a response. Close with a statement of appreciation, it will encourage your
reader to respond.
What is a Report?
Throughout the course of your life in an institution or company, reports will figure prominently.
At any given time in most companies, reports are being requested, researched, written,
revised and reviewed. Now comes the question-What is a report? According to Nicky Stanton
2004, ‘a report is a communication of information or advice, from a person who has collected
and studied the facts, to a person who has asked for the report because they need it for a
specific purpose. To him, the ultimate function of a report is to provide a basis for decision and
action. Michael and Kenneth 19888 on their part state that a report can be either in written
form or in oral form and that in written form, reports serve not only as a way of relaying
information but also as an official record that the information was in fact, relayed.
Please write this report- this sentence fills people with fright. People dread writing reports more
than anything else. The higher you rise in life, the more likely it is that you will write a report on
various subjects. If you accept this definition, you will realize that you have written reports on
so many things in one moment in your life. For example: A report on what happened in a
meeting, lecture for someone who did not attend, A report of your knowledge of the facts or of
your opinions on a particular situation or issues at work for your boss to aid in the facilitation
of taking a decision or actions.
Reports are documents designed to record and convey information to the reader. Reports are
part of any business or organization; from credit reports to police reports, they serve to
document specific information for specific audiences, goals, or functions. The type of report is
often identified by its primary purpose or function, as in an accident report, a laboratory report,
a sales report, or even a book report. Reports are often analytical, or involve the rational
analysis of information. Sometimes they simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all, but still
need to communicate the information in a clear and concise format. Other reports summarize
past events, present current data, and forecast future trends. While a report may have
conclusions, propositions, or even a call to action, the demonstration of the analysis is the
primary function. A sales report, for example, is not designed to make an individual sale. It is,
however, supposed to report sales to date, and may forecast future sales based on previous
trends. This chapter is designed to introduce you to the basics of report writing.
Types of Reports
Reports come in all sizes. The type of report depends on its function. The function of the report
is its essential purpose, often indicated in the thesis or purpose statement. The function will
also influence the types of visual content or visual aids, representing words, numbers, and
their relationships to the central purpose in graphic, representational ways that are easy for the
reader to understand. The function may also contribute to parameters like report length (page
or word count) or word choice and readability. They therefore contain different information and
24

25. structures, including headings and subheadings, and these form the outline of the report. The
table below shows the sections commonly found in these types of reports.
Common report structures
Short report Science report Business report
Title page Title page Title page
Introduction Introduction Executive summary
Discussion Method & materials Table of contents
Recommendations Results Introduction
References Discussion Discussion
Conclusion Conclusion
Appendices Recommendations
References Appendices
References
Engineering report Research report
Title page Title page
Executive summary (optional) Executive summary
Introduction Introduction
Objectives Method / methodology
Analysis Results / findings
Discussion Discussion
Recommendations & action plan Conclusions
Conclusion Recommendations
Appendices Appendices
References Bibliography
Other Types of Reports
25

26. Some examples of reports are: recommendation reports, annual reports, auditor's reports,
workplace reports, census reports, trip reports, progress reports, investigative reports, budget
reports, policy reports, demographic reports, credit reports, appraisal reports, inspection
reports, military reports, bound reports, etc.
Short reports- In Industry/ Institutions and Government
Reports are produced and circulated within an organization or pass directly from writer of the
report to one individual or committee or body within that organisation to inform. By virtue of
either their position or function within an organisation or their having witnessed something or
having been asked to investigate something, the writers of reports produce them to convey
information to people.
Report writers might simply gather information and package up that information into a report
(informing); they might analyse information that has been gathered and present that analysis in
a report (analysing ); they might evaluate information such that the reader of that report can
make a decision as a direct result of reading the report (Evaluating); they might be charged
with the task of making a decision, with making a recommendation for a future course of action
(recommendation); they might have witnessed an accident or have been asked to investigate
how a specific job of work was progressing and to produce a report noting their observations
(describing).
Examples of reports produced and internally circulated are:
 Accident Report:
 Feasibility Study / Report.
 Recommendation Report,
 Progress Report,
 Incident Report,
 sales Report,
 Accident Report,
 site Reports
 Seminar Reports
 Short reports in this context at times are written for readers who need to know the
results of your work/activities so that they can make a decision. Include your
conclusions and recommendations only if they are specifically asked for. Be as brief as
possible, preferably one page or less.
Types of Reports and Their Functions" includes common reports that, depending on the
audience needs, may be informational or analytical.
More Types of Reports and Their Functions
26

27. Type Function
1. Laboratory Report Communicate the procedures and
results of laboratory activities
2. Research Report Study problems scientifically by
developing hypotheses, collecting data,
analyzing data, and indicating findings or
conclusions
3. Field Study Report Describe one-time events, such as trips,
conferences, seminars, as well as
reports from branch offices, industrial
and manufacturing plants
4. Progress Report Monitor and control production, sales,
shipping, service, or related business
process
5. Technical Report Communication process and product
from a technical perspective
6. Financial Report Communication status and trends from a
finance perspective
7. Case Study Represent, analyze, and present lessons
learned from a specific case or example
8. Needs Assessment Report Assess the need for a service or product
9. Comparative Advantage Report Discuss competing products or services
with an analysis of relative advantages
and disadvantages
10. Feasibility Study Analyze problems and predict whether
current solutions or alternatives will be
practical, advisable, or produced the
desired outcome(s)
11. Instruction Manuals Communicate step-by-step instructions
on the use of a product or service
12. Compliance Report Document and indicate the extent to
which a product or service is within
established compliance parameters or
standards
13. Cost-Benefit Analysis Report Communicate costs and benefits of
products or services.
27

28. Type Function
14. Decision Report Make recommendations to management
and become tools to solve problems and
make decisions
15. Benchmark Report Establish criteria and evaluate
alternatives by measuring against the
establish benchmark criteria
16. Examination Report Report or record data obtained from an
examination of an item or conditions,
including accidents and natural disasters
17. Physical Description report Describe the physical characteristics of a
machine, a device, or object
18. Literature Review Present summaries of the information
available on a given subject
How Are Reports Organized?
Reports vary by size, format, and function. You need to be flexible and adjust to the needs of
the audience while respecting customs and guidelines. Reports are typically organized around
six key elements:
1. Whom the report is about and/or prepared for
2. What was done, what problems were addressed, and the results, including conclusions
and/or recommendations
3. Where the subject studied occurred
4. When the subject studied occurred
5. Why the report was written (function), including under what authority, for what reason, or by
whose request
6. How the subject operated, functioned, or was used
Pay attention to these essential elements when you consider your stakeholders, or those who
have an interest in the report. That may include the person(s) the report is about, whom it is
for, and the larger audience of the business, organization, or industry. Ask yourself who the
key decision makers are who will read your report, who the experts or technicians will be, and
how executives and workers may interpret your words and images. While there is no universal
format for a report, there is a common order to the information. Each element supports the
main purpose or function in its own way, playing an important role in the representation and
transmission of information.
Good Report
The following comments have been made by senior managers about what they look for in a
good report.
 A report must meet the needs of the readers and answer the questions in their minds
28

29.  A report must be at the right level for the readers. Some readers have an in-depth
knowledge of the subject while others may be decision-makers without specialized,
technical knowledge
 A report must have a clear, logical structure-with clear signposting to show where the
ideas are leading
 A report must give a good first impression.
 Presentation is very important
 A report must not make assumptions about the readers’ understanding.
 All writers need to
 apply the ‘so what’ test
 explain why something is a good idea
 Reports must be written in good English
 using short sentences with correct grammar and spelling
Reports should have a time reference
Steps to Follow for a Good and Effective Report
1. Define your aim
2. Collect your ideas
3. Select the material and decide how to show the significance of your facts
4. Structure your ideas
5. Start on report writing
Purpose & audience
Before starting to write a report, there are two key questions that need to be clarified:
 What is the purpose of the report?
 Who is the audience for the report?
Purpose
 What is the purpose of the report? Is it to:
 collect data and present the findings?
 analyse a situation or activity?
 review and evaluate the literature on a topic and identify issues?
 All of these reports are forms of a research report, but they fulfil different functions.
Audience
 To help locate a report in a more realistic context, think carefully about all the potential
readers of a report, and ask:
 Who will read the report?
 What are the audience's needs, eg information, ideas, motivation etc?
 How much detail needs to be included in the report?
29

30. General Structure of the Report
One of the most common formats for presenting reports is IMRAD: Introduction, Methods,
Results and Discussion. This structure is the basic structure. The IMRAD (/ˈ mræd
ɪ /) structure
is the most prominent norm for the structure of a scientific journal article of the original
research type. IMRAD is an acronym for introduction, methods, results, and discussion.
Original research articles are typically structured in this basic order.
 Title
 Introduction
 Main Body
 Conclusion and Recommendations
 Appendices
Components of a short Report
 Heading:
State the subject clearly and concisely, and put the most important words at the beginning of
the subject line in the heading.
 Introductory statement:
State the general problem first to give the reader a context or “big picture.” Then explain the
specific question or task arising from that problem that you will be dealing with. Finally, explain
why the report is being submitted or what it is intended to do. This brief, but crucially important
overview should usually be no longer than two or three sentences.
 Findings or results:
Present your findings clearly and concisely, in whatever method is most appropriate (a list, a
table, and so on, with adequate explanation). Arrange your results so that the ones most
important to the project or the reader are placed first. Present the rest of your results in
descending order of importance. Since your findings are usually the major reason for the
memo, this section may be the longest part of the report.
 Conclusions and recommendations:
Determine and present the most significant implications or recommendations for action.
You may need to put this section before the findings, or you may not need to include this
section at all unless it is requested. Company policy dictates whether or not this section is
included.
 Format considerations:
 Be brief.
 Use headings and mark your key points so that your readers can survey the contents
and can quickly find what they want.
 Place your strongest arguments first when your purpose is to persuade.
 In different companies, in different schools, and in different courses, you will find that
different formats are preferred for specific kinds of reports. Who your audience is greatly
affects how your report should be designed. Thinking about your readers, who they are,
30

31. what they want to accomplish, and what you want to accomplish will help you determine
how to write and format your report to best bring about your purposes.
The Research Report
Research reports are the most common type of report. This section explores a research report
and outlines the requirements of the different sections. Although this concentrates on research
reports, many of the sections are applicable to other types of reports.
 Executive summary (Abstract)
An executive summary provides a quick overview or synopsis of a report, summarising the
essential parts. It outlines the following information:
 the purpose of the report
 the methods used to conduct the research
 the results of the research
 the conclusions drawn from the research
 recommendations for future actions.
 The executive summary / abstract is generally written last. This allows you to
summarise all the major areas of the report.
1. Executive summary (Abstract)
An executive summary provides a quick overview or synopsis of a report, summarising the
essential parts. It outlines the following information:
 the purpose of the report
 the methods used to conduct the research
 the results of the research
 the conclusions drawn from the research
 recommendations for future actions.
The executive summary / abstract is generally written last. This allows you to summarise all
the major areas of the report.
Example
2. Introduction
A good introduction is important in a report. It should give the reader all the information
required to understand the importance and relevance of the report. It should clearly state:
 the context of the report
31

32.  relevant background information
 the purpose of the report
 limits on the scope of the research
 definitions & key terms.
3.Method
The method section of a report details how the research was conducted, the research methods
used and the reasons for choosing those methods. It should outline:
 who the participants were
 the number of participants
 the research methods used, eg surveys / questionnaire, interviews etc
 how the research was carried out, ie the process including distribution
 how the data was collected, ie getting the information back.
It is important that this section gives clear and concise details of the research methods. It is
really a step-by-step explanation of the process. It should be factual and is mainly written in
the past tense.
4. Results
The results section of a report details the results or findings of the research. It answers the
following questions:
 What happened?
 What was found?
There is no interpretation of the results, it only states the facts.
Presenting the data
How the findings are presented is important. Using visual data, eg tables and graphs, can help
to summarise the results and make them easy to understand. However, if visual data is used,
they must be referred to in text. Dot points / bullet lists are also useful ways to present
information.
Example
32

33. 5.Discussion
The discussion section of a report interprets the results of the research. It is here that the
findings are woven together and the major issues / themes are identified and discussed.
The discussion section aims to:
 state / identify the main research findings / themes
 interpret and weave the results together to support the findings
 link the results to other research.
Identifying the major themes in the results will help structure the discussion, especially in long
reports. These can often be used as headings.
6.Conclusion
The conclusion summarises the main findings of the report and presents 'an answer'. No new
information should be put in a conclusion.
Example
7.Recommendations
The recommendations section is important because it suggests suitable actions, outcomes,
changes or solutions to the problem(s) identified in the research. Point form can be used to list
the recommendations. Depending on the types of recommendations, a time frame or action
plan may need to be included to achieve the proposed outcomes.
Language of recommendations
Recommendations suggest a possible course of action or outcomes. There is usually a main
objective or outcome, then suggestions for achieving that outcome. At this stage, they have
33

34. not been adopted or accepted, they are merely suggestions. Verbs such as should, could, may
etc should be used when writing recommendations. Recommendations often start with 'It is
recommended that...'
Example
Checklist for Ensuring That A Report Fulfills Its Goals.
1. Report considers the audience’s needs
2. Format follows function of report
3. Format reflects institutional norms and expectations
4. Information is accurate, complete, and documented
5. Information is easy to read
6. Terms are clearly defined
7. Figures, tables, and art support written content
8. Figures, tables, and art are clear and correctly labeled
9. Figures, tables, and art are easily understood without text support
10. Words are easy to read (font, arrangement, organization)
11. Results are clear and concise
12. Recommendations are reasonable and well-supported
13. Report represents your best effort
14. Report speaks for itself without your clarification or explanation
4.4.Review Question
1.Find an annual report for a business you would like to learn more about. Review it with the
previous reading in mind and provide examples. Share and compare with classmates.
Write a report on a trend in business that you’ve observed, and highlight at least the main
finding. Draw from your experience as you bring together sources of information to illustrate a
trend. Share and compare with classmates.
4.5.References
[1] Bovee, C., & Thill, J. (2010). Business communication essentials: A skills-based approach
to vital business English (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis Business Communication for the Information Age
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, Dallas, 1988
34

35. 4.6 Tasks
Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone you know. Share it
with your classmates, observing confidentiality by blocking out identifying details such as the
name of the sender, recipient, and company. Compare and contrast.
2. Create a draft letter introducing a product or service to a new client. Post and share with
classmates.
3. Write a memo informing your class that an upcoming holiday will be observed. Post and
share with classmates.
4.7.Reading Assignment/Suggested Readings:
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis Business Communication for the Information Age
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, Dallas, 1988
[1] Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved
fromhttp://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/japan/article5723942.ece
4.8 Here is a summary of this week’s reading:
(you may provide a summary for the week if the reading materials are much)
Reading Assignment Supplementary source
Your may provide a YouTube video lecture that can help in the understanding of this unit or
your own personal video lecture for this unit
Written Assignment
Find a business letter (for example, an offer you received from a credit card company or a
solicitation for a donation) and share it with your classmates. Look for common elements and
points of difference.
Now that you have reviewed a sample letter, and learned about the five areas and fifteen basic
parts of any business letter, writ
Self-Quiz
Provide multiple choice questions that doesn’t count towards the students grade but
can be useful in understanding the unit or when taking a graded quiz
Graded Quiz: provide multiple choice questions that counts towards the students grade. The
total evaluation for multiple choice as indicated in the syllabus for this course is 10%
4.9.Review Questions
Writing Exercise.
35

36. 1.Write a memo to inform your colleagues about a training programme that is compulsory for
everybody. Set up your own memorandum form by writing or typing the words: Memorandum,
To, From, Date, and Subject.
4.10. References
M.O. Odiaka, Mastering English, UBE EDITIONS, Macmillian Nigerian Publishers Limited,
Revised and Expanded Editions 2011.
Nicky Stanton, Mastering Communication Fourth Edi, Palgrave macmillan, 2004
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis Business Communication for the Information Age
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, Dallas, 1988
David T. Russell, Standard English Grammar Update Russell publishing House Inc. New York
USA
4.11.Tasks
Respond to this advert in The Herald Newspaper of Friday 23 Feb, 2007:
City Bank based in Douala requires the services of a Personnel Manager. All applications
should be addressed to the General Manager. Applicants should not be more than 32 years of
age, should be bilingual and have at least a Bachelor’s Degree in any management related
discipline.
5.10. Reading Assignment/Suggested Readings:
M.O. Odiaka, Mastering English, UBE EDITIONS, Macmillian Nigerian Publishers Limited,
Revised and Expanded Editions 2011.
Nicky Stanton, Mastering Communication Fourth Edi, Palgrave macmillan, 2004
Michael E. Adelstein and Kenneth .W. Davis Business Communication for the Information Age
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, Dallas, 1988
David T. Russell, Standard English Grammar Update Russell publishing House Inc. New York
USA
Written Assignment
4. Respond to each of the situations below.
Write a letter to your school Dean, an institution correctly using the Right format to:
a) Complain about any academic troubles you are facing.
b) Report an accident in which you were involved. Make sure that you include precise details
of the accident and all the information necessary which will act as a tangible reason why you
could not write your exams.
Self-Quiz
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37. Week 5: Session 5/Chapter 5- Uses of Development communication and Case studies
5.0 Introduction to Uses of Development Communication
The importance of communication to development is borne out of the realisation that
development is human-centred and thus requires communication for its full realisation. This
week or this session highlights the role of communication in development and highlights some
successful case studies use of communication in development.
5.1Pedagogic Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
 Understand the role of communication in development
5.2.Learning Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should;
 Explain the roles of communication in development
 Enumerate some cases of successful use of communication in development.
5.3 Topics
 Roles of Communication in Development
 Cases of successful use of communication in development.
ROLES OF COMMUNICATION IN DEVELOPMENT
The importance of communication to development is borne out of the realisation that
development is human-centred and thus requires communication for its full realisation. FAO
1994:5, points out that “communication is the key to human development and the thread that
binds people together”. This corroborates Moemeka’s (1991) view that development efforts
cannot be successful without planned communication because its flow determines the
direction and pace of dynamic social development. We thus examine the various roles that
communication can play in the process of development.
The first common theme running through development issues is the human factor. For
development to take place, people have to be involved because they are actually at the centre
of meaningful development. Communication is the second common theme in the issues
outlined. For if development can be seen as a fabric woven out of the activities of millions of
people, communication represents the essential thread that binds them together.
On the one hand, communication as dialogue and debate occurs spontaneously in any time of
social change. The increased freedom of expression in recent times has been almost
simultaneous with changes in the global political structure. On the other hand, it is
communication as a deliberate intervention to affect social and economic change that holds
the most interesting possibilities. A development strategy that uses communication
approaches can reveal people's underlying attitudes and traditional wisdom, help people to
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38. adapt their views and to acquire new knowledge and skills, and spread new social messages
to large audiences.
The planned use of communication techniques, activities and media gives people powerful
tools both to experience change and actually to guide it. An intensified exchange of ideas
among all sectors of society can lead to the greater involvement of people in a common cause.
This is a fundamental requirement for appropriate and sustainable development.
The following are the roles that communication plays in development:
Better Planning and Programme Formulation
Any development programme that regards people as mere recipients, rather than as the actual
creators of change and progress, usually fails. Consulting the people and actively involving
them in making the decisions that will affect them virtually ensures the programme's success.
In practical terms, effective planning must make a deliberate effort to determine what people
want to do, can do and can continue to do in a sustainable way. To find this out,
communication techniques go far beyond the simple question-and-answer survey. Meaningful
discussion, generated by people trained in interpersonal communication skills, and audiovisual
tools, such as video or radio, can help the community to identify its true problems and priorities
and where its capabilities and needs lie. This self-analysis can help a community to generate
realistic proposals for new development initiatives and stimulates tremendous interest to have
these initiatives succeed.
The views of rural people can also guide prospective work plans, preventing them from moving
in the wrong direction. For example, agricultural research can be tied directly to what farmers
really want and are capable of using. A systematic communication process brings researchers
and practitioners together. A policy of communicating with people intensively before a
development programme is even drafted, and taking into account their views, capabilities and
needs as they see them, is the best insurance a planner can have.
People's Participation and Community Mobilisation
The dynamic strategy behind people's participation and community mobilisation is to - release
the energy of rural people by building their confidence to make decisions and carry them out -
as a community in a self-reliant way, and to grove that they benefit from such efforts.
Communication activities can help people, even those from different social groups within a
community, to share information and exchange ideas in a positive and productive fashion. This
dialogue can be enriched by understanding how development issues affect them, discovering
what others think in other communities, and seeing what other communities have achieved.
These are effective methods to help people to reach a consensus and find common grounds
for action, based on their own needs and capabilities.
Dialogue can be initiated and guided by field staff who has good interpersonal communication
skills. Discussion tools such as flipcharts, audio-cassettes, slides and even video, can be used
to help people visualize and reflect upon their own reality. Rural radio too can be a popular
forum where local people do most of the talking about technical and cultural topics. These
activities can lead to a serious diagnosis of problems and a search for solutions. Gaining
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39. people's participation always requires much face-to-face work within the community in order to
make a bridge of understanding. Communication skills and media help people to visualize and
cross that bridge more swiftly.
Changing Life-Styles
Rural populations and women in particular, find it increasingly difficult to cope with rapidly
changing social conditions, which often lead to the development of unsettling life-styles. For
instance, in societies where marriage and childbearing no longer go together, the social and
economic cost of teenage pregnancies weighs heavily on people's, and the nation's,
resources. In others, rural youth, often from fatherless homes, increasingly rebels against
parental poverty. Pressed by peers, teenagers often drop out of school, fall for drugs, or end
up in the gangs of city slums. Communication can focus on the long and sensitive process of
changing behaviour and life-styles. Quite recent communication research methodologies make
it possible to gain insight into the underlying reasons why people adopt a certain life-style.
Once this understanding is acquired, communication approaches can respond in a
combination of ways. Mass media can raise awareness and public understanding of the social
implications of problems such as adolescent fertility, AIDS or drug abuse. Other
communication activities can bring about informed processes of change among the audiences
they intend to reach. Interpersonal communication techniques such as peer counselling have
the capacity to develop coping mechanisms, self- esteem and images of a better future among
teenagers, especially if combined with group discussions and other tools which create a
dialogue. Social communication activities based, for example, on street and village theatre,
and using truly participatory methodologies, can pioneer attitudinal changes at the community
level and stimulate nonthreatening environments in which teenagers wish to learn about life.
Improved Training
Colourful, even dramatic, audiovisual tools bring new ideas and techniques alive; they
energise programmes of training and human resource development whenever they are used.
Audiovisual materials can be produced locally at a reasonable cost. Then, duplicated in
quantity, they can help to train large numbers of people. Audiovisuals have many additional
advantages for users. Trainees - even if they are illiterate - can see and discuss quite complex
techniques and procedures before practising them. This audiovisual training method improves
mental retention enormously: making it four or five times better than just hearing a lecture, and
nine times better than merely reading the information.
In just one sitting a training group using audiovisuals can explore, for example, improved
agricultural practices from sowing to reaping, the problem of deforestation and the solution of
afforesting, or the symptoms of under-nutrition and how people can obtain a better diet.
Trainees can travel - through pictures - to places that are otherwise too distant and expensive
to visit. Limits of time and space can be overcome, thanks to the skilful use of communication
media.
The trainers and field staff themselves also benefit from using audiovisual training packages.
The technical information presented is standardised and of high quality, coming directly from
technical specialists without any intervening distortion; the presentations are attractive and
39

40. interesting; and the training packages guide dialogue from beginning to end. Overall
audiovisuals allow trainers to be more confident and professional.
Rapid Spread of Information
Often the news, as well as information on new techniques and issues of development should
be made known to people throughout a region or an entire country. Used with skill, the mass
media can provide a powerful service to spread this information far and wide.
The use of radio, television, other electronic media and newspapers has grown considerably in
many developing countries. The cost of using these media to spread information to large
numbers of people can be low. For example, studies have shown that radio broadcasts are 2
000 to 3 500 times less expensive per contact hour than extension workers are. Of course,
extension workers do much more than pass messages, but the cost-efficiency of the mass
media can be indisputable for certain purposes. One example comes from Turkey where free-
of-charge "public-service" television time was given to air spots and programmes on health
and social themes such as teenage pregnancy. This resulted in reaching every person in the
entire country at the extraordinarily low cost.
Effective Management and Coordination
When a new development orientation is being introduced within a ministry, when strengthened
teamwork is needed, or when planners and policymakers need to keep abreast of the field
situation regarding the social effect of their development programmes, communication
approaches are crucial. Workshops that bring together different levels of officials can be the
best way to create common understanding and to obtain acceptance for change and a
commitment to work together. Such workshops, if well run, can be a rewarding exercise in
communication skills. Participants from various levels can explore problems and opportunities
in their development work and look for solutions, in a brain-storming atmosphere. Informal
discussions allow centrally based managers to hear about the field situation in ways that are
perhaps more meaningful than official reporting often is. They can also enter into the spirit of
teamwork by helping to suggest new approaches and learning to work in a participatory way
among staff of all levels. This experience boosts morale and commitment and provides
insights into how participatory planning can work in practice.
Media materials, such as rural radio and video programmes, which feature rural people
themselves as a prime source of information, can have an additional purpose beyond their use
in rural areas. They can provide management with direct raw information and a barometer of
people's concerns, which otherwise might not pass so quickly through an administrative
reporting process. Field staff, too, greatly appreciates the higher quality of information which
communication techniques can provide as a supplement to the existing system of reports,
memoranda and directives. Regular, accessible and credible communications can narrow the
gap between headquarters and the field. Used for reporting purposes, video, photographs,
sound recordings and printed materials can bring the field situation alive to managers who may
not have the means or the time to visit project sites.
Generating the Support of Decision-Makers
40

41. Decision-makers in government, technical agencies and donor countries should be well
informed about the progress and achievements of new programmes in order to sustain, and
even expand them when justified. Communication tools can be a dynamic means to gain the
attention and support of decision-makers. For presentations in meetings and displays at
conferences, the use of video programmes, photographs, audiovisual programmes and
overhead projections helps participants to visualize the otherwise dry statistics and data typed
in reports. Video programmes are especially useful because they can be given to decision-
makers to view individually at a convenient time, away from the pressures and distractions
of office hours.
Interesting programmes aired on national television and radio, and informative articles
newspapers are often noticed by decision makers. Newsletters too, while primarily intended for
people within development programmes, also keep decision-makers informed about
achievements and needs.
Some Case Studies of Successful Role of Communication in Development
1.Rural Nigeria: Radio and Mobile Phone Change Women’s Lives
Initiated in 2009, Majalisar Mata Manoma was a project that involved creating spaces for
women farmers in the rural community of Gwagwada, Nigeria, to meet and engage with
radio. The project, which was carried out by the African Radio Drama Association (ARDA),
involved the development and broadcast of a radio programme designed for rural farmers,
particularly women, as well as the establishment of a listening club in Gwagwada. Women in
the listening clubs were also trained to use a cellphone to interact with the radio programme. In
addition, the project used theatre for development to identify needs, create awareness, and
mobilise community members, particularly women.
Communication Strategies: Prior to commencement of the project, ARDA carried out a
baseline study to identify the needs of the beneficiaries and to draw out issues to be
addressed by the radio programme. The baseline was also used to determine the
appropriateness of local theatre as a development tool.
According to ARDA, the participation of two key male figures - a community elder and a school
teacher - helped curtail possible opposition from the spouses of participating women. In
addition, previous preparation, including work using theatre for development with men and
women in the community, helped the women's husbands accept their participation. However,
mobilising the women was still a challenge, as their heavy daily workload made listener group
activities a secondary priority.
The project also addressed the issue of unequal workloads between women and men in the
community. According to ADRA, the workload for young girls and women is disproportionately
heavier than that of their male counterparts. An activity that requested participants to chart the
daily diaries of the opposite sex helped build awareness around this problem for community
members, while focus group discussions explored the significance of this issue. The theatre for
development skits also portrayed this topic.
Broadcast live, the 30-minute radio programmes included music, a talk- show with an expert
guest, phone-ins, and inserts recorded by the listeners' club members. These inserts consisted
41

42. of discussions, songs, and opinions. The women involved in the project provided a priority list
of issues they wanted the radio programmes to address. To deal with these identified issues,
the programme relied on scripts downloaded from the Farm Radio International website.
As part of the project, the listeners' club was given a mobile phone to allow the women to
engage with the radio programmes. According to the organisers, this strategy was necessary
because women generally have less access to mobile technology due to gender inequalities in
the community and lack of income. Members were trained to use the phone to make and
receive calls and text messages. The women have also started using the phone to generate
income for the club.
2.Programme of Integrated Rural Development in the Tropical Wetlands in Mexico
FAO (1994) reported on a Programme of Integrated Rural Development in the Tropical
Wetlands. Planners in Mexico in 1975 contemplating a large-scale integrated rural
development project wished to avoid the bitter experience of a prior agro-industrial project in
the 1960s which drained 83, 000 hectares, built roads, bridges, new villages, schools and
medical centres, and yet met with serious resistance from local residents, causing the massive
effort to fall far short of its objectives. How could a similar new project, budgeted at US$149
million, be ensured of success?
The new project, the planners determined, should be designed with the proposed beneficiaries
themselves, the rural communities, in the hope of securing their active participation.
A communication process was initiated. Local people's attitudes and needs were elicited using
video and audio recordings that were then played back to the communities themselves as a
basis for discussion. People began to articulate more clearly the realities of their situation, their
priorities and what they felt capable of achieving.
A true dialogue between the rural communities and planners resulted in the birth of the first
phase of an extraordinary project in 1978-84: PRODERITH (Programme of Integrated Rural
Development in the Tropical Wetlands). This development programme went on to increase the
income of 3 500 farming families in a 500 000-hectare zone by 50 percent. It also trained 500
development professionals. Most significantly, it developed a methodology for rural
development which was applied in a successive phase to a 1.2 million-hectare area affecting
650 000 people.
Communication played a decisive role at every stage of the project - planning, increasing
people's participation, training and evaluation. The World Bank, which helped to finance
PRODERITH, considered it to be among the most successful programmes they supported,
attributing much of its success to its rural communication system. This system had at absorbed
only 1.2 percent of the total cost of the large infrastructure project by the end of its first phase
in 1983. PRODERITH achieved an internal rate of return, which measures the economic
success of the venture, 7.2 percent higher than originally foreseen.
3.Communication for Improved Livestocks in Parakou, Benin
In Benin, in early 1992 a government veterinarian visited a village near the town of Parakou
with a number of good ideas to help the community improve its livestock production. Sheep
42

43. and goats, many sickly and thin, wandered everywhere, stripping the land bare. The
veterinarian advised local residents to plant fast-growing fodder crops, build enclosures in
which to keep the stock and have the animals vaccinated. The people, however, rejected his
ideas immediately and absolutely. They had trust neither in the government official himself, nor
in his untraditional ideas.
Not one to give up, the veterinarian managed to have the village - and himself - included in a
new communication project. Before long, he had been trained to use better interpersonal
communication skills and tools, and the village was soon erupting into lively discussions about
his proposals almost every night. Today in this village one sees large and healthy sheep and
goats. Almost every home has an enclosure to keep the animals, and fodder gardens to feed
them. Owners sell the sheep for triple the price they obtained before. Many use the profits to
buy buffaloes to plough their fields for the first time. However, the main talk is not about new
buffaloes, or ploughs, or the labour saved or even whatever happened to the veterinarian (who
moved on to another village); instead it is about marketing, genetic improvement, flock size
and feed.To an outsider, credit for all these improvements in living standards might seem due
to the Veterinarian or perhaps to the "communication process" itself. Residents would probably
disagree-they praise the sheep.
4.Communication Helped Stopped the Scourge of Locusts
When a scourge of locusts invaded the Sahel in 1987 to devour all vegetation in sight and
threaten the very survival of humans and animals throughout the area, a refusal to stamp out
the menace would have seemed inconceivable to an outsider.
However, such a refusal did occur in the important Kalait region which formed the frontline
against desertification of the country and was the site of major agricultural projects. There,
local livestock owners were determined not to risk poisoning their herds with insecticide. Also,
because of the ongoing conflict with a neighbouring country, they strongly disliked any low-
flying aircraft, such as were needed to spray the insecticide, and so effectively blocked
emergency action across 3,800 hectares, endangering the entire region.
Before it was too late, the Rural Radio Service of Chad was called upon to change the herders'
minds - somehow. Instead of commanding them to cooperate by issuing increasingly dire
threats over the radio - a tactic used by the government, which had already failed - the rural
radio producers knew how to write a message which would appeal to the sense of dignity and
responsibility of their loyal listeners. The broadcast made a simple proposition: to move the
herds out of one zone for three days so that it too could be treated with insecticide. Then it
would be safe to re-enter that zone: and vacate another so that it too could be treated. Within
24 hours, the herders across the large area had met and agreed. The plane was allowed to fly.
The locusts were sprayed and destroyed. Good communication skills had helped to overcome
this scourge.
The point has been well presented that communication and people are the two most crucial
themes in development. Development must evolve from the people, but take communication to
mobilise and engage people for development purposes. The cases cited emphasized what
communication can do in getting people’s attention and participation for development.
5.4 Review Question
43

44. 1.Enumerate the roles of communication in development.
5.5 References
FAO (1994). Communication. A Key to Human Development. Rome: FAO.
Moemeka, A. A. (1991). Perspectives on Development Communication. Module on
Development Communication. Nairobi: ACCE. pp 15- 30.
Adebayo, L. (1990). The Development Journalism Concept and the Nigerian Journalist: An
agenda. In Oso, L. & Adebayo, L. (eds.). Communication and Rural Development in Nigeria.
Abeokuta: Millenium Investments.
Aggarwala, N. (1979). What is Development News? Journal of
Communication, Vol. 29, No. 2, 181‐2.
Anaeto, S. G. & Solomon-Anaeto (2010). Development
Communication: Principles and Practice. Ibadan: Stirling- Horden
Publishers.
Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of Mass Communication: An Introductory Text. Ibadan: Bakinfol
Pubs.
Haas, T. & Steiner, L. (2006). Public Journalism: a reply to critics.
Journalism 7(2): 238-254.
Nwosu, I. (2000). Effective Media Writing (2nd edition). Enugu: Pricision Printers and
Publishers.
Human Rights Watch (2006). Book Reviews: Development as Freedom, by Amatya Sen, New
York, Anchor Books, 1999. Reviewed by Rona Peligal,Director of Foundation Relations,
Human Rights Watch. [0]. Retrieved on April 26, 2006 from http://www.hrw.
org/community/bookreviews/sen.htm.
McQuail D. (2005). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: SAGE
Publications.
Okigbo, C. (1991). The Print Media and National Development in Africa. Module on
Development Communication, Vol. 2. No2, pp1-11
Barlow, M. (2001). Water as Commodity—The Wrong Prescription, The Institute for Food and
Development Policy, Backgrounder, Summer, Vol. 7, No. 3.
Bhasin, K. (1992). Education for Women’s Empowerment: Some Reflections. Adult Education
and Development, No 39, p16.
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45. Tagliabue, J. (2002). As Multinationals Run the taps, Anger Rises Over Water for Profit, New
York Times.
Lanihun, A. (2003). Communicating for Development Purposes: A Gender Perspective. In
Soola (ed.).Communicating for Development Purposes. Ibadan: Kraft Books.
UNICEF (2004). The State of the World's Children 2005 - Childhood under Threat. New York:
UNICEF.
Shah, H. (1996). Modernisation, Marginalisation, and Emancipation: Toward a Normative
Model of Journalism and National Development. Communication theory 6(2): 143-166.
Soola, E. O. (2003). Development Journalism for Print and Electronic Media Journalists
in Nigeria. In E. O. Soola (ed.). Communicating for Development
Purposes. Ibadan: Kraft Books.
Wimmer, J. & Wolf, S. (2005). Development Journalism out of Date? An Analysis of its
Significance in Journalism Education at African Universities. Retrieved on October 18, 2006
from http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/archive/00000647.
5.6 Tasks
1..In what ways are people and communication central development?
Reading Assignment Supplementary source
Written Assignment
1..In what ways are people and communication central development?
Self-Quiz
Graded Quiz:
45