Concept formation, construct and learning

CONCEPT
• Concepts (e.g., faces and objects) are units of mental
representation that assign certain perceptual features to spacing
conceptual categories. Early in development, we learn to differentiate
between living and nonliving objects, based on our ability to generate
self motion. This process becomes more complex as we learn to
differentiate sub categories within these categories of living and
nonliving objects. Knowledge organized into such categories is
encoded and stored in long-term memory and retrieved during action.
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-
dentistry/concept-formation

CONCEPT FORMATION
• Number: by the age 6 or 7, children’s understanding of one-to-one
correspondence is complete. For example, school age children realize that
six remains six whether it is represented as 5+1, 9-3 or six stars.
• Time: until age 8, children have difficulty placing events in their
appropriate time sequence. Units of time (minutes, hours, years etc.) have
little meaning to them. After age 8, children have a more precise
understanding of time passage. They are usually able to classify past and
future events according to how recently they occurred.
• Spatial( 3D) Operations: Children have difficulty understanding distance
before they reach school age because they don’t comprehend the basic units
of measurement (miles, feet, km etc.). The ability to navigate within a new
environment develops slowly during the school years. Young school
children lose their spatial sense easily in unfamiliar and complex spaces.

Con…
• Older children can draw a map of area if they have had the chance to thoroughly
explore the space, but even 10 year olds have trouble creating a cognitive map of
an environmental space in order to give directions or locate an object (Siegal
1989)
• 2. Classifications: Class inclusion or addition of classes is well developed in
school age children. They are able to form class hierarchies and to understand that
all things have multiple identities. By age 6 or 7 most children can understand
multiplication of classes. A 7-8 year old child in the stage of concrete operations
can sort cutouts in two shapes and two colors into appropriate groups.
• Seriation(arranging): In addition to classifying and grouping objects, school-age
children are capable of sequencing and ordering objects with respect to some
measurable dimension, such as weight or size. This process is called seriation.
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Concept Formation (Knowledge)
• Concept formation refers to a higher-order mental process that acts on
information that has been perceived through our sensory organs and
encoded and stored in memory. This process includes organization of the
information into conceptual categories and the use of such knowledge in
reasoning, problem solving, goal selection, and planning. Through the
process of categorization, infants and young children begin to form
concepts about objects, people, and actions. For instance, early in
development, infants learn to categorize faces as familiar and unfamiliar. As
discussed in an earlier section, infants are seen to spend more time attending
to faces that are familiar, such as the mother (Bushnell et al., 1989). This
indicates that infants have already begun to categorize faces according to
their perceived familiarity.

KEY ELEMENTS OF CONCEPT FORMATION
• Key elements of concept formation are the processes of grouping and
differentiation. Grouping involves the clustering of information into larger
units, a process known as “chunking” (Gentile, 2000). Chunking helps the
system function more efficiently because the performer has to attend to
groups of information rather than each piece of information separately. The
benefits of chunking perhaps can be seen best through an example:
Consider a child walking through his classroom to his teacher. In
performing this task, he encounters numerous toys strewn across the floor,
furniture placed all over the room and a few peers running around in the
classroom. The process of chunking allows the grouping of all stimuli into
stationary and moving objects; this way the child can perceive the
movement of his peers as a unit rather than attend to the movement of each
child individually. Grouping reduces the attention demands of the task and
allows the child to allocate his attention to additional stimuli (furniture) that
are important.

Differentiation,
• Differentiation, on the other hand, refers to the process through which
performers perceive more detail in an array of stimuli as they become
more familiar with it. As the child begins to learn to walk, he will
likely not perceive the subtle(understand) differences in the speed of
movement of the moving objects in the environment. With experience,
he will learn to distinguish between stimuli related to other children
either walking or running.

SCHEMA
• Piaget used several new terms drawn from his background as a biologist like-
schemata, assimilation, accommodation, adaptation and equilibration. We will
now try to understand the implications of each of these.
• The Schema: As children experience their world, they develop an understanding
of it and how it appears to work. Piaget used the term 'schema' to refer to the
comprehension that an infant, child, or adult may have about different aspects of
his or her world. The word 'schema' is derived from a Greek word which means
'form'. A schema is like a map or an outline. Piaget believed that children
develop schemata, or schematic outlines of what the world about them is like,
and that these schemata are maintained in the memory. He believed that
because of a child's lesser experience and because the child's brain is not fully
developed biologically, the child's schema of the world will be qualitatively
different from an adult's. Thus children are not merely adults who know less, and
conversely, adults are not simply knowledgeable children.

Adaptation
• Adaptation: During cognitive growth, children develop their
schemata and continue to adapt to their environments. Adaptation
refers to adjustments to changes in the environment, or the ability to
understand and fit in with one's surroundings. Chameleons 'adapt' to
their environment when they change color to fade into the
environment. We adapt to the coldness of winter by wearing
cardigans(woolen jacket) to keep us warm. We change our mode
and tone of speech according to the person to whom we talk.
Adaptation is thus the basic process of all human activity. It consists of
the twin processes of assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation (adaptation)
• Assimilation (integration) refers to the act of taking in information
and perceptions in a way that is compatible with the person's current
schema of the world. In other words, it means 'construing reality'. A
baby assimilates when he or she reaches for a toy. In Piaget's language,
he assimilates the toy to his reaching scheme. A child assimilates when
he classifies a new object as a suitcase or a vase. Switching on the fan
when it is very hot in order to cool-off is also an act of
assimilation. Classifying a person as someone with leadership
potential is also indicative of assimilation.

Accommodation
• Accommodation refers to the process by which a person adjusts or
changes his or her schema to incorporate aspects of an experience
not currently represented in his cognitive structure. In other words,
it means modifying one's strategies or concepts as a result of
assimilation of new experiences or information. So when the baby
changes the way he holds his hand as he reaches for round objects as
opposed to square ones, he has accommodated. Changing one's
concept of leadership after talking to several people with
leadership potential is also an act of accommodation.

Equilibration
• Equilibration: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
is known as 'equilibration'. By equilibration, Piaget meant a hypothesized
drive to maintain an equilibrium between one's schema and the information
one obtains from the world. A child shows equilibration when he gives up
one learning strategy that may work fairly well for one that works better,
such as, moving from rote memorization to conceptual learning while
studying for exams. A researcher shows equilibration when he gives up -
an old theory because the evidence refutes(disprove) it, and builds a
new theory that handles the evidence better.
• Piaget believed, that there is an inner force that drives individuals to
actively pursue cognitive adaptation which is referred to as equilibration.
This force is what eventually propels an individual forward through the
stages of cognitive development.

Concept Map
• It is a great use having the concept map in explaining the
general principles formed out of many related ideas. Concept map is
also used to explain the mutual relationships existing between the
various general principles. The relationship between various ideas
put forth in a lesson and the way they lead to the general principles are
understood with the help of concept map.

Con…
• Concept map helps to understand how the different general principles are
themselves related. It is very useful in preparing a classified summary of
the ideas learnt in a lesson. Here, in the concept map, starting from a
general principle, every idea has to be put in a hierarchical order.
‘Linkage’ and Cross Linkage’ between the different general principles
are to be indicated. In preparing the lesson for his class, the teacher is
helped to a large extent by this concept map.
• The students can be given concept map as a follow-up activity. So that it
forms stimulated home assignment. The analytical thinking is students in
promoted by it and their learning become comprehensive and
meaningful. Thus, concept map is a helpful tool in the learning process.
• UNIT 3

REAL LIFE EXPERIENCES-CONCEPT
FORMATION
• The first stage in cognitive development, according to Piaget, is the
sensory-motor period, which lasts till two years of age. During this
period, the infant understands events and experiences using her senses
and motor capacities. She is not able to think in terms of concepts. By
the end of this period, the infant develops a fairly good
understanding of her surroundings-she recognizes many people,
understands that her actions can have an effect and develops an
idea of what she is capable of doing. Memory grows, language
develops and the infant is able to plan her actions. She learns why
things happen the way they do and forms an idea about the world
around her.

Con…
• The sensory-motor period is divided into six sub stages, four of which
have been discussed here.
• During the first sub stage (from birth to one month) the infant is
able to use her reflexes and an elementary form of learning begins
through generalization and discrimination.
• During the second sub stage (from one to four months) the infant
begins to show curiosity and visually explores the surroundings.
She begins to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people.
She also imitates some actions.

Con…
• During the third sub stage (4-8 months) the infant seems to realize
that her actions can have an effect on people and things. Her actions
become intentional and she understands cause and effect relationships.
• The fourth sub stage (8-12 months) is characterized by the infant's
ability to perform goal-directed behavior. She now combines two or
more actions purposefully to achieve a goal.
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Con…
• Cognitive developmental views of Piaget characterize the
developmental stage of the child at 6 to 11 or 12 years as concrete
operational. As the child grows physically and mentally, his behavior
shows marked differences from the earlier stages. Socially, children of
this age group like the company of their friends and peers more than
their parents. They are busy in learning various skills which bring
change in emotional expressions. Learning what is socially right and
wrong goes along with the above dimensions of development. At this
stage development is more affected by learning and training. This is
where schooling becomes important.

Piagetian Conservation Tasks
Type of
conservation
Dimension Change in physical
properties
Conservation
question
Age at which the
task can be solved
Number No. of elements in a
collection
Rearranging or
dislocating elements
in a collection
Which line has more
marbles?
Preconservative
child will say longer
line has more and
conserving child will
say both have the
same number
6-7 years of age
Substance
Conserving child will
say yes..
Amount of
malleable(flexible)
substance
Altering its shape Do the two pieces
have the same
amount of clay?
Preconserving child
will say no.
7-8 year
Length Two sticks of the
same length
Move one stick over Which stick is
longer?
Preconsrving child
will say one is
longer. Conserving
child will say both
are the same length
7-8 year

Area conserving
child will say yes
Two identical pieces
of card board with
same number of
blocks
Rearranging blocks
on one cardboard.
Do the two pieces
of cardboard have
the same amount of
open space?
preconserving child
will say no.
8-9 years of age
Weight Weight of an object Altering space Which object
weighs more?
Preconserving child
will say vertical
shape weighs more.
say both weigh the
same.
9-10 years of age
Volume. Two identical balls
of clay in two
identical glasses
Change the shape of
one of the balls
Do the pieces of clay
displace the same
amount of water?
Preconseving child
will say no.
say yes
14-15 years of age

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CONSTRUCT
• A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given
research and/or theory-building purpose. An abstraction like personality is much
more difficult to visualize. Such abstract concepts are often called constructs.
• The Role of Constructs
• A construct is an abstract idea inferred from specific instances that are
thought to be related. In the field of marketing based research constructs are brand
loyalty, satisfaction, preference, awareness, knowledge. Research objectives
typically invite for the measurement of constructs. There are some methods for
defining and measuring constructs.
• EXAMPLES OF CONSTRUCTS
• Aggression
• Love
• Intelligence
• Life satisfaction
UNIT II LESSON 4 CONCEPTS AND
CONSTRUCTS
INTRODUCTION TO CONCEPTS AND
CONSTRUCTS
VARIABLES

CONSTRUCT OF MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS
OF EXTERNAL REALITY
• Mental representations are conceptualized (abstracted) as a special
case of information processing in which correlational information is
received, recorded, but also modified by a complex emergent
process of associating new elements. In humans, the acquisition of
information and creation of mental representations occurs in a two-
step process.

Con…
• First, a sufficiently complex brain structure is necessary to
establishing internal states capable to co-vary with external
events.
• Second, the validity or meaning of these representations must be
gradually achieved by confronting(challenging) them with the
environment. This contextualization can be considered as part of the
process of ascribing (assigning) meaning to information and
representations. The hypothesis introduced here is that the
sophisticated (advanced) psychological constructs classically
associated with the concept of mental representation are essentially of
the same nature of simple interactive behaviors.

Con…
• The idea of representation discussed is related to the brain’s
capacity of developing inner states, in the form of relatively stable
patterns of neuronal activity, that keep some kind of relationship
with events occurring in external world. In many cases, these
representations start by simple reactions to external stimuli but, due to
brain’s organizational characteristics, evolve by incorporating many
other elements than those directly apprehensible from the direct
contact with the environment.

Con…
• Although frequently studied separately, the concepts of information
and representation can be described as having computational and
semantic aspects. The term computational refers to the possibility of
codification, quantification, manipulation(operation), and physical
implementation of information and representations while the term
semantic refers to the meaning of both concepts in different
contexts(backgrounds).

Con…
• As we shall see although representations can be localized(contained)
in the brain, their meaning does not reside exclusively(completely) in
the neurobiological instance (case) being a characteristic of the
dynamic interaction between brains and environment.
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4165208/

PEERS
• Who are peers? Peers are equals, individuals who are usually of the
same age, gender and social status and who share interests. Peer group
has an important role, especially in the present modern society, in
influencing choices and decisions about educational courses to be pursued
and careers to be taken. Peers relations are characterized by important
features during adolescence and youth:
• 1. Peer relations become more salient (outstanding) in adolescence
• 2. With the transition to adolescence, peer relations grow more complex.
• 3. Friendships are characterized by similarity, which is a product of both
partner selection and influence.
• 4. Status or prestige is an important element of adolescent peer relations.

Socializing Mechanisms of the Peer Group
• The peer group is an important socializing agent contributing beyond
the influence of the family and school. Peers socialize each other
through certain mechanisms. They are: reinforcement, modeling,
punishment and apprenticeship (Berns, 2016).
• Reinforcement
• Modeling
• Punishment
• Apprenticeship

SIGNIFICANCE OF PEERS TO SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Peers are significant to human development because they satisfy basic
social needs:
• the need to belong to a group and interact socially, and the need to
develop a sense of self (a personal identity).
• Peers form an important group of belongingness for adolescents and
youth besides family.
• They enable them to have experiences independent of parents or
other adults.
• Peers’ opinions are important for young people to develop their own
identity.

Social Competence(capability/ability/skill)
• Engagement with peers teaches children the limitations that group
places on their selves in return for providing opportunity to belong.
• As children develop, peer group experiences expand their
understanding of what is acceptable and what is not.
• Peer groups give individuals the opportunity to try out roles and
values learnt at home.

Con…
• To participate in peer activities, individuals have to weigh loyalty to
peer norms against individual norms and parental norms.
• According to Hans Sebald (1989, 1992), adolescents turn to their
parents with regard to scholastic or occupational goals – in general,
future oriented decisions. For present oriented decisions related to
clothing, dating, social activities and recreation, they turn to their
peers. On moral issues, parental values dominate; on appearance, such
as grooming, peer values dominate (Martino, Ellickson, & McCaffrey,
2009).
• file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/peer%20peer.pdf

COMMUNITY AND MEDIA
• The word ‘community’ gives us a sense of a big family. Everyone is
associated with a common thread in a community. However, within the
communities, members have varied issues and interests. But the community
media binds them together by providing a platform to address all their
issues.
• The word ‘media’ has its root in ‘medium’ meaning and referring to a
communication channel. News, information, education and entertainment
is spread through communication. The physical form includes newspapers,
magazines, and journals while the online forms are television, radio,
telephone and the internet. Each one is a medium of communication. When
we talk about reaching a very large number of people it is called mass
media. While community media refers to an exclusive type of media purely
meant for a particular community.

Con…
• Characteristics of Community Media The following are the
characteristics of community media:
• 1. Community media is characterized by its user-centric approach.
Participatory in nature to provide democratic space for all the
stakeholders in decision making.
• 2. Community media enables the audience to be active and its
content democratic.
• 3. It is characterized by its roots nature of existence in the local
cultures and traditions.

Con…
• 4. The communication is participatory and every community member
can participate in shaping the content.
• 5. It provides an alternative perspective on issues of the community
whereas corporatized media houses provide limited focus
• . 6. Community media is linguistically sensitive and humane(kind).
• 7. Storytelling and sharing of personal narratives about issues and
concerns is one of the key characteristics
• 8. The ownership and sustainability (maintain over time) is in the
hands of the community.

Forms of Community Media
• Community media includes a variety of media aimed at community
development. Initiatives are community-driven and mixed with
alternative forms of media. It facilitates and helps to share the
knowledge to ‘conscientise’ (to educate about an issue)its members,
which results in motivating the members of the community to take
part in community development activities. Community media is not
restricted to technological interventions but also exists in human and
non-technological forms. Let us discuss the first examples of the non-
technology based community media forms.

Con…
• Theatre
• Puppetry
• Community Games
• Grass root Comics
• Community Radio
• Community television
• Participatory Video

COMMUNITY MEDIA IN INDIA
• Khabar Lahariya Community Newspaper
• Community TV Delhi Agriculture Television (DATV) project (1967)
• Gram Vaani
• Mobile for Development
• Kalanjiam Community Radio
• Gaon Connection
• The Cybermohalla Project
• Video SEWA
• World Comics Network
• Radio Mewat
• file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/community%20and%20media.pdf

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNIG
• Any one of several internal, external or unknown factors can influence
learning.
• In this section, a classification of the factors influencing learning has
been made under the broad headings psychological, socio-emotional
and educational factors.

Psychological Factors
• Several psychological factors such as intelligence, personality, attitude, interest,
and aptitude have considerable influence on the learning of a child.
• Apart from these, motivation, self-concept, readiness is a necessity, often learns
to read with little instruction. Whereas, seriously retarded readers tend to be
aggressive or to withdraw, to feel insecure and apprehensive(Worry).
• A child's learning is influenced by his/her concept of himself/ herself. If he/she
puts no value on himself/ herself or thinks of himself/ herself as a failure, he/she is
generally not interested in learning.
• Ability to pay attention is also basic to learning. Children learn the habit of
sustained attention by persisting at things that interest them. A child's attention
cannot be demanded. It is said to be a by-product of interest and maturity.

Socio-emotional Factors
• The family the child belongs to has a considerable influence on the
learning. Family factors such as child-rearing practices, reward and
punishment, scope for freedom and independence in activities,
play and study facilities, ambitiousness(strong desire to success) of
the parents, disorganization and discord among members, degree
of maturity expected of the boy or the girl child, birth position such
as eldest, youngest or single child have their definite influence on
learning.
• Regardless of basic motivation, the anxiety aroused by disturbed
family background shows itself in thinking difficulties, viz, day
dreaming, inattentiveness and difficulty in concentration.

Con…
• Working mothers who also experience marital discord are not only
physically absent from their children, they are also emotionally absent.
Learner from such a home is usually found self absorbed and inattentive. -
Parental ambition, especially that of the mother, of acquiring status and
upward mobility (move to higher social class)brings with it's a resistance
on the part of the child to learn. Children in such families if unable to cope
with the pressure for excellence, may show a passive resistance and may
be excessively slow about things at home.
• A subtle(indirect) but powerful influence on the growing child arises from
his/her position among the children in the family. The parents of the first-
born expect the child to act like miniature adults and hence the first-
born are found to encounter a variety of expectation and stress.

Con…
• Whereas, parents tend to be more relaxed in their "dos" and "don'ts" with
the last-born. Factors like traumatic (shocking) events at home, separation or
death can also precipitate learning problems in an otherwise normal child.
• A child who comes from a very poor family and never tasted any intellectual
stimulation at home remains dull and unresponsive in the class. In some
cultures, there is a strong sex role bias. Girls are directly or indirectly told that
education is not meant for them. In a similar way, some caste groups in our
country have hidden messages like 'education is not meant for us' or 'our children
cannot study'. This apathy(indifference) to education may pose problems for the
child in learning. The middle class depends for its survival on jobs, they value
education highly, and frequently give their children a valued concept of
education. The motivation to study is more for the child.
• file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Factors%20affecting%20learning.pdf

SCHOOL RELATED FACTORS INFLUENCING
LEARNING
• Learning is also assumed to be greatly influenced by the school and the
school environment in which students are imparted with different types of
learning experiences. The term ‘school environment’ encompasses the terms
‘school culture’ and ‘school climate’ that affect the behavior of teachers
and students. School culture is the shared beliefs and attitudes that
characterize the district wide organization and establish boundaries for its
constituent units. School climate characterizes the organization at the
school building and classroom level. It refers to the “feel” of a school and
can very from school to school within the same region. While an individual
school can develop a climate independently of the larger organization,
changes in school culture at the regional or local level can positively or
adversely affect school climate at the building level. School culture reflects
the shared ideas-assumptions, values, and beliefs-that give an organization
its identify and standard for expected behaviors.

Con…
• The characteristics of a school culture can be deduced from multiple
layers:
• Artifacts (objects) and symbols: the way its buildings are decorated
and maintained
• Ø Values: the manner in which administrators, principals and staff
function and interact
• Ø Assumptions: the beliefs that are taken for granted about human
nature

Con…
• On the other hand, school climate reflects the physical and
psychological aspects of the school that are more
susceptible(vulnerable) to change and that provide the preconditions
necessary for teaching and learning to change and that provide the
preconditions necessary for teaching and learning to take place.
• School climate, focuses on the feelings and attitudes about a school
expressed by students, teachers, staff and parents – the way
students and staff “feel” about being at school each day. School
climate is a significant element in discussions about improving
academic performance and school reform.

Con…
• The following eight areas comprise school climate:
• Ø Appearance and physical plant
• Ø Faculty relations
• Ø Student interactions
• Ø Leadership/decision making disciplined environment
• Ø Learning environment
• Ø Attitude and culture
• Ø School-community relations

Con…
• The comprehensive view used in this brief, and summarized below, defines
school climate in terms of four aspects of the school environment:
• Ø A physical environment that is welcoming and conducive to learning;
• Ø A social environment that promotes communication and interaction;
• Ø An affective environment that promotes a sense of belonging and self-
esteem;
• Ø An academic environment that promotes learning and self-fulfillment.
• . Collectively, the physical, social and affective environments contribute to,
and are impacted by, the academic environment.

Con…
• In addition, a student is helped by the resources available in the school for
bringing desirable changes in his/her behavior. The physical resources
include availability of appropriate learning materials, facilities like
teaching-learning aids, school building, classrooms, library, laboratory
facilities, playground, sports equipment, electricity facility, drinking
water facility, proper seating arrangements, and so on. The quality and
management of these physical resource decide about the effectiveness of
learning among students. Apart from this, school policies, the nature of
school administration, distribution of responsibilities and
accountability, leadership provided the institutional head, discipline
among staff as well as students, etc, are also the deciding factors that
influence learning among the students.
• file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/School%20Related%20factors.pdf

LEARNING STYLES
• Individual show preference for different learning conditions. These are
called learning styles, or learning preferences. The learning style theories
recognize that individuals learn in different ways and that each individual
has a unique style of learning. You must have noticed that some students
learn well in the morning while some others prefer to study at night. Some
students like to sit in quiet places, while some others like to have music
accompanying their learning. Many students report optimal learning while
sitting on the dining table and also eating snacks along with their studies.
• Students who live in joint families actually develop styles of learning
which are set in public spaces. Learning styles can thus range from
straightforward preference for physical surroundings to more fundamental
differences that may be rooted in culture or personality.

Con…
• Some individuals take a ‘deep-processing approach’, seeking the
underlying concepts and meanings of what they are attempting to
learn. Others take a surface – processing approach, focusing on
memorization rather than analysis and understanding.
• It is generally observed that individuals who adopt a surface
approach are motivated by getting good marks and other external
rewards, whereas those who take a deep approach enjoy learning
for the sake of learning and are less concerned with external
evaluations. There are many more differences in learning styles which
educational psychologists have studied. For example, think about how
you learn the names of people you meet.

Con…
• Do you learn a name better, if you see it written down? If so, you may be a
visual learner, one who learns best by seeing or reading. If you learn better
by hearing, you may be an auditory learner. Another pattern of learning
styles is field dependence versus field independence. Field dependent
individuals tend to see patterns as a whole, and have difficulty separating
out specific aspects of a situation or pattern, while field independent persons
are more able to see the parts that make up a large pattern. Another
important learning style on which individuals differ is ‘impulsivity’ versus
‘reflectivity’. Impulsive (act suddenly) individuals tend to work and make
decisions quickly, while reflective types are likely to take a longer time
considering all alternatives.

Influence of Media on Learning
• These days, children are born, grow up and live in a media dominated
world. Media have been considered as an important component of
transmitting information.
• All media are basically delivery media because they deliver i.e.
communicate information from the sender-end to the receiver-end. The
learner is a receiver and consumer of the information conveyed through the
media. Media can be broadly divided into two categories: print and non-
print media. Print media refers to text or printed materials. It is economical
and has traditionally been used for pedagogical resources. But, it may not be
the only or the perfect medium to impart education. Non-print media, also
known as modern electronic media have certain unique qualities which, in
certain cases facilitate learning much faster than the print medium.

Con…
• These excite the students psychologically and motivate them to
participate in teaching-learning process. So, it is well clear that
media are advantageous in enhancing learning among students, but
proper use of the media requires the use of well-developed media-
specific skills. If these skills are not well developed, the message may
be misinterpreted or uncritically received, accepted and responded to.
For using media constructively, learners need to learn how to
critically interpret combinations of words, pictures, maps,
diagrams and specialized symbolic expressions.

Con…
Critical (able to judge) learners can use different media for attaining
various educational objectives, chief of which are the following:
• As a means of entertainment or infotainment i.e. information-cum-
entertainment;
• • As a means of enriching classroom learning;
• • As a major learning resource
• • As a means of developing and refining creative expression;
• • As a means of further development of media-specific sensory skills
and higher order cognitive skills.

Con…
• A constructive use of various media can enable the learners to
transform their understanding of their society and themselves, and thus
help formal education become more meaningful for every learner.
Media can provide a glimpse (sight) of alternative possibilities and
help learners to reconstruct a new map of knowledge, with greater
focus on powers of synthesis and intellectual analysis.

Teaching strategies
• Teaching strategies are methods of imparting skills, knowledge or
concepts to a learner.
• Task analysis is a commonly used teaching strategy. It involves
dividing or breaking up of a task into simple steps ( its sub-tasks) and
arranging the sub-tasks in a sequential order as they occur, from the
first to the last step. The teaching sequence, after breaking up the task
into sub-tasks, has to be developed keeping the child as the focus.
• Modeling is ‘teaching by demonstration’. Here you show the child
what you want the child to do and he performs the task.

Con…
• ‘Shaping’, where you reinforce (strengthen) the child even if he
shows a part of the behavior, is also a useful strategy for teaching.
• Prompting and fading is another teaching strategy. ‘Prompt’ (swift)
refers to giving help and ‘fading’ refers to gradually withdrawing
help. The types of prompts you can use are verbal prompt, gestural
prompt and physical prompt.
• Study skills training helps the children to learn ‘‘how to learn’’. It
enables children to systematically plan, organize, record, access and
use information on their own.

Con…
• Co-operative learning is a group teaching strategy where the students
work together to help each other learn.
• Scaffolding (platform/supporting) is a strategy in which the parent or the
teacher combines new information with what the child already knows to
produce a more general, higher order skill.
• Reinforcement is another strategy that is used during teaching. It can be
used to teach new skills and behaviors or increase the frequency of
desirable behaviors. The reinforce selected must be appropriate for the child
and must be given keeping certain principles in mind. You need to give
continuous reinforcement when teaching a new behavior or skill. Once the
child has learnt it sufficiently, give intermittent (irregular) reinforcement.
• http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/35134

Instructional Tools
• E-learning Tools: Adapt, Adobe Presenter, Easygenerator, eXe,
Geobra, Learn Bubble, Sway, TEDEd, Vyond, Xerte, PowToon,
Lectora, ISpring, isEazy, HiHAHo,Evolve Authoring, EDPuzzle,
Camtasia, Brachtrack, Articulate, Adopbe captivate
• • Quizzing and Testing Tools: Quizlet, ClassMarker, Easy Test Maker,
Exam Buddy, Hot Potatoes, MyGradeBook, Online Exam Builder,
Respondus, Test maker Technology Integration in Teaching-Learning
Processes
• • Learning platforms& LMS: Axonify, aNewspring, Blackboard,
Canvas, Curatr, D2L, Degreed, Edmodo, Google Calssroom, Mahara,
me:time, Moodle, PebblePad, Schoology, Thinkific, Totara Learn

Content Development Tools- Documentation
Tools:
• Apple Pages, Bean, Google Docs, Libre Office, Open Office, Publisher,
Word, Wordle, Zoho Docs, Writer, AbiWord, Dark Copy, Desktop Author,
Scribus, Visme, Writer
• • PDF & Flipping Book Tools: Sumnotes, Adobe Acrobat Pro, Adobe
inDesign, Booklet Creator, FlippingBook, Google Docs, LibreOffice,
PDFCreator, PDF Pro, Uniflip, ZonePDF
• • Presentation Tools: Apple Keynote, Google Slides, Haiku Deck,
LibreOffice, OpenOffice, PowerPoint, Prezi, SlideShare, Sway,
VoiceThread
• • Spreadsheet Tools: Excel, Google Sheets,LibreOffice, NeoOffice,
OpenOffice, ThinkFree, Abiltiy Office, SoftMaker Office, Glide, FluSuite,
Ability Office

Con…
• • Clip Art, Image and Phot Sharing platforms: Flickr, Free Foto,
iStock, Pixabay,Shutterstock, Unspalsh, Absolutely Free Clipart
• • Graphic & Infographic Tools: Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop,
Adobe Spark, Canva, Easel.ly, GIMP, Infogram, OmniGraffle,
Piktochart, SimpleDigrams, Typorama
• • Screen Capture and Screen Casting Tools: BB Falshback,
CamStudio, Camtasia, DemoBuilder, Geenshot, Jing, Monosnap,
ScreenCastle, Screencast-O-matic, ScreenFlow, Snagit, Webinaria.
• • Audio & Podcasting Tools: Adobe Audition, Audacity, Chirbit,
EasyPodcast, GoldWave, Hipcast, iPadio, PodAdmin, SoundCoud,
SpokenText, Vocaroo

Audio & Podcasting Tools
• Audio & Podcasting Tools: Adobe Audition, Audacity, Chirbit,
EasyPodcast, GoldWave, Hipcast, iPadio, PodAdmin, SoundCoud,
SpokenText, Vocaroo
• • Video & Animation Tools: Adobe After Effects, Adobe Animate, Adobe
Premiere, Animoto, Apple iMovie, Genial.ly, H5P, HiHAHo, Kaltura,
Knovio, Moovly, PowToon, TED Ed, ThingLink, Vimeo, Vynod, WeVideo,
YouTube
• • Augmented and Virtual Reality Tools: Aurasma, ENTitTi, Experizer
Studio
• • Blogging Tools: 21classes, b2evolution, Blogger, Edublogs, Medium,
Pebble, Serendipity, Tumblr, WordPress, Soup, Penzu, Blog.com.

Web Pages/Site Tools
• : Adobe Coldfusion, Arachnophilia, Drupal, Firebug, Google Sites,
Homestaed, Mozello, PmWiki, Serendipity, Strikingly, Wix,
• • Form, Polling & Survey Tools: 2ask, addpoll, Epic Poll, Fo Space,
Google Forms, Key Survey, Microsoft Forms, Orbeon Forms,
Pollhost, SISSurvey, SurveyMonkey, Typeform, Web Online Surveys,
Zoho Survey

Personal & Professional tools
• • Digital Notebooks & Personal Information Systems: aNotepad,
Breakdown Notes, Evernote, Google Keep, KnowledgeNotebook, List.It,
MyInfo, OneNote, Privnote, QuickLyst, Todoist, Workflowy,
• • Search & Research Tools: 43marks, BibMe, Bing, Cite This For Me,
DeeperWeb, Duckduckgo, Google Search, Google Scholar, Kartoo, Mahalo,
Mendeley, Quora, SimilarSites, Wikipeadia, Wolfram Alpha, Zotero
• • News, Curation& Bookmarking Tools: Anders Pink, Diigo, Flipboard,
Google Alerts, Nuzzel, Paper.Li, Pinterest, Pocket, Scoopit, Zeef, Wakelet,
TagTeam, Pluggio, MyCurator, BibSonomy,
• • Mind Mapping Tools: Bubbl.us, Cmap, FreeMind, iMindMap,
MapMyself, MindManager, MindMaper, MindMiester, Popplet,
WiseMapping, XMind
• • Journaling Apps: Day One, Diaro, Flava, Momento, Penzu, Writr

• Personal Productivity Tools
• Bit.ly, DeepL Translator, Google Calendar, Google Earth, Google
Maps, Grammarly, Google News, Google Translate, IFTTT,
LibraryThing, Office Lens, Plaxo, Wunderlist, Zapier
• • Personal & Social Media Dashboards: Buffer, Hootsuite, Middlespot,
Pobb, Start.me, TweetDeck, Symbaloo, Protopage, Only2Clicks
• • Digital Notebooks, Personal Learning Systems & Digital Portfolios:
aNotepad, ClassMint, Evrnote, Google Keep, Knowledge Notebook,
Mural, Notability, OneNote, PebblePad,SNIPPit

Con…
• • Players & Readers for the Web: Adobe Reader, Awasu, Castro,
Feedly, Feedreader, Foxit Reader, GoodReader, Inoreader, iTunes,
Kindle App, Miro, Overcast, Quick Scan, Shrook
• • Web Browsers: Browzar, Firefox, Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge,
Opera, Safari, SeaMonkey, SlimBrowser, SwiftFox, Vivaldi
• • Personal Smart Devices: Android Phones, Tablet, Apple iPad, Apple
iPhone, Apple Watch, Kindle
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/bitstream/123456789/71939/1/Unit-5.pdf

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION INTEACHING
• “Technology integration is the application of technology to facilitate
learning through different mediums, provide opportunities for student-
centric learning, engage learners, and allow for differentiation and learning
preferences” (Yemothy, 2012). Davies & West (2013) defines technology
integration “as the effective implementation of educational technology to
accomplish (achieve) intended(planned) learning outcomes. We consider
educational technology to be any tool, piece of equipment, or device-
electronic or mechanical-that can be used to help students accomplish
specified learning goal”. Educational technology includes instructional
technologies that teachers use for instructional delivery and learning
technologies that students use for accomplishing learning objectives. Thus,
technology integration is nothing but the use of technologies or medias in
the teaching-learning process.

Con…
• For example, when a teacher uses ‘computer’ to show an ‘online video
programme’ during the teaching-learning process, this is one of the
applications of technology. When presentation software like,
PowerPoint is shown to present a topic, then technology is being
utilized. Similarly, a teacher uses ‘mobile phone’ to video record an
incident and that is used to teach any concept is also an application of
technology. If the teacher directs the students to search ‘internet’ and
explore the latest information about the topic being taught, technology
is part of the teaching-learning process. Here you can see that,
‘computer’, ‘PowerPoint’, ‘mobile phone’, ‘online video programme’,
and ‘internet’ are technologies. These technologies are integrated in
the teaching-learning process while transacting the topic.

Con…
• The use of such technologies (digital devices and application
software (tools) helps teachers to effectively transact the topic and
achieve the desired learning objectives. Thus, whenever technology
is utilized in the teaching-learning process, it implies technology
integration. Even though there are differences, in the context of
education, the terms’ ‘technology’ and ‘media are interchangeably
used.
• file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/technology%20for%20teaching.pdf

ICT Interventions and Initiatives in India
• In India, individual states have significant ICT-related
interventions in their education systems. However, some of the
major initiatives operating at a national level in educational
institutions in India are as follows:
• The Consortium (grouping) for Educational Communication
(CEC) is one of the interuniversity centres set up by the University
Grants Commission (UGC). The main objective of the centre was to
address the needs of Higher Education through the use of powerful
medium of television along with the appropriate Information
Communication Technology (ICT).

Con…
• The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), makes its
textbooks available online through its website to ensure easy and free access by
teachers and learners. Similarly, NSDL, an initiative of the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), provides free access to supplementary
curriculum based content.
• Project Ekalavya is an open source educational initiative by the Indian
Institute of Technology, Bombay, for content development in Indian
languages. It is an endeavour to provide an interactive platform for the creation,
absorption, dissemination and usage of knowledge. The project attempts to bridge
the gap between the seekers and givers of knowledge by creating innovative
channels of communication.
• National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL), a joint effort
of the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Institute of Science
(IISc), has created lectures aimed at students and faculty in private
engineering colleges.

Con…
• VASAT, a wing of the International Crops Research Institute for the
SemiArid Tropics (ICRISAT), has created open access learning
materials on agricultural practices, aimed to promote natural resource
literacy. Under a Creative Commons licence enabling reuse, these materials
are presented as PowerPoint slides, Flash videos and HTML.
• Media Lab Asia (MLAsia), set up by the Department of Information
Technology, Government of India, is a not-for-profit Research and
Development organization. MLAsia works with academic and R&D
institutions, industries, NGOs, and the Government to develop relevant
technology and culturally appropriate solutions in the areas of ICT for
healthcare, education, empowerment of the disabled and rural
connectivity. Some of the education-related projects undertaken are
Gyanpedia and Virtual Laboratories for Life Science Experiments

Con…
• Towering(high) over these initiatives is the NME-ICT, launched in
2009, and its Web portal — Sakshat — that provides access to e-
content, e-journals and e-books. In addition, the National Educational
Foundation, under the aegis of the National Knowledge Commission, seeks
to develop web-based open resources. The Mission has two major
components - (a) content generation and (b) connectivity along with
provision for access devices for institutions and learners.
• The ICT @ Schools scheme was launched in 2004 with a view to
provide opportunities to students to develop their ICT skills as well as
use ICTs to aid the teaching learning process. Under this scheme, support
is provided for procurement of computers, peripherals, software,
connectivity, and so on. The scheme is currently being implemented in all
states and union territories of India in government and government-aided
secondary and higher secondary schools.

Con…
• Almost all the states in the country are implementing central schemes such
as ICT @ Schools, SSA Mission on Education through ICT and have
significant number of students enrolled in open learning systems at the
school and college levels (Kelly, 2010). These initiatives span different
levels of education (primary, secondary, and tertiary) and different types of
providers (government, public, private). However, they converge in their
attempts to provide access to quality teaching and learning resources
(Harishankar, Balaji & Ganapuram, 2013).
• There is a strong need for proper coordination of these initiatives using
ICT for education with the help of a clear framework and guidelines to
enable seamless integration of ICTs in education.
• file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Media%20and%20Technology%20in%20
Teaching%20Learning%20Process.pdf

PROFESSIONAL TRAITS OF A. TEACHER
• Professionally, a teacher should possess the following traits:
• Mastery over content
• Knowledge of teaching skills
• Other attributes

Mastery over content:
• Unless one has mastery over content of a subject one can not become
an effective teacher. Content mastery can be achieved through various
ways like reading books, magazines, periodicals, dictionaries,
encyclopedias, newspapers etc., attending seminars, workshops,
symposia, conferences, public meetings; discussing with
colleagues, experts, authorities; meeting leaders and other
professionals, observing the happenings in and around the
environment; and so on

Knowledge of teaching skills
• The knowledge and use of a set of skills facilitates teaching- learning process. These skills are known as
instructional skills. Instructional skill is defined as the cluster of behavior manifested by a teacher which can be
acquired through practice. The list of instructional skills that help a teacher to carry out instructional process
effectively is given below: Introduction
• Questioning
• Probing (investigative)
• Reinforcement
• Explanation
• Illustrating with examples
• Recognizing attending behavior of students
• Using audio-visual aids
• Using blackboard
• Silence and non-verbal cues (signals)
• Stimulus variation
• Achieving closure

Other attributes
• Along with content mastery and knowledge of instructional skills, the other
effective attributes of a teacher are sense of responsibility, showing
concern for students, acknowledging and appreciating the effort of
students, accepting each student as a distinct individual, loving and
caring etc. These help a teacher to understand students as they are. Over
and above the aforementioned three essential personality traits i.e. content
mastery knowledge of instructional skills and other attributes, a teacher
needs to be guided by professional ethics since he/she is a member of a
professional group.
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