This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism presented by Group 4. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their main functions and classifications including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It also covers the reactions of monosaccharides, digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth, stomach and intestines, and the metabolic pathways that control carbohydrate metabolism including glycolysis. Glycolysis is described as the process of breaking down glucose to extract energy, producing pyruvate, ATP, NADH and water in the cytoplasm.

1. PRESENTATION BY: GROUP 4

2. TABLE OF
CONTENTS
Functions &
Classifications
Chirality
Enantiomers
Reaction of
Monosaccharides
Digestion of
Carbohydrates
Metabolic Control
of Carbohydrate
Metabolism
& Glycolysis

3. Functions &
Classifications of
CARBOHYDRATES
•are sugar molecules along with proteins and
fats
•You can found carbohydrates in foods and
drinks
•Your body breaks carbohydrates into
glucose or blood sugar is the main source of
energy that your body cells, tissues and
organs need
•They are composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen atoms
CARBOHYDRATES
•Monosaccharides
•Disaccharides
•Polysaccharides
THREE MAIN TYPE OF CARBOHYDRATES

4. Functions &
Classifications of
CARBOHYDRATES
SUGARS OR MONOSACCHARIDES
These are also called simple carbohydrates because
they are the most basic form. They can added to foods
such as the sugar in candy, desserts, processed foods,
and regular soda. They also include the kinds of sugar
that are found naturally in fruits, vegetables, and milk
Monosaccharides
•Examples: Glucose, fructose, and galactose.
•Characteristics: unable to be divided into simpler
sugars.
STARCHES OR DISACCHARIDES
are complex carbohydrates that are made of lots of
simple sugars strung together. Your body needs to
break starches into sugar to use them for energy.
Starches include bread, cereal, and pasta. They also
include certain vegetables like potatoes, peas and
corn.

5. Functions &
Classifications of
CARBOHYDRATES
Disaccharides
•Examples: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose
(glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose +
glucose).
•Characteristics: Double sugars composed of two
monosaccharide units.
FIBERS OR POLYSACCHARIDES
It has also a complex carbohydrate. your body
cannot break down most fibers, so eating foods
with fibers can help you feel full and make you less
likely to overeat. They may also help lower
cholesterol and blood sugar.
Polysaccharides
•Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose.
•Characteristics: Multiple sugar units linked
together. Serve functions like energy storage
(starch, glycogen) and structural support
(cellulose)..

6. Key functions of carbohydrates:
Energy Source
Energy Storage
The body uses carbs primarily as an energy source. After being
ingested, carbohydrates are converted by the body into glucose
and other simple sugars, which are then utilized by cells for
cellular respiration, a process that produces energy.
Glucose surplus is frequently stored as starch in plants and as
glycogen in the muscles and liver of mammals. When the body
needs more energy, it can convert these forms that have been
stored into glucose.

7. Chirality Enantiomers
•Isomerism
* Structural Isomers - molecules with same molecular formula
with different connectivity
* Stereoisomers - compounds with same molecular formula and
the same connectivity. Same atoms connected in the same
way but differs in the way they are connected in 3 dimensional
spaces.
Enantiomers
* Type of stereoisomeric relationship
* Molecules that are non-superposable mirror images of one
another world as we knew it is gone. The dead have risen and
taken over. It's up to us to survive and fight for our lives.

8. 1. Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions:
Monosaccharides can be oxidized, where they lose electrons, or reduced, where they gain
electrons. For example, glucose can be oxidized to gluconic acid or reduced to sorbitol.
2. Isomerization Reactions:
Monosaccharides can rearrange their atoms to form isomers. For example, glucose can
isomerize to fructose in a process called mutarotation.
3. Glycosidic Bond Formation:
Monosaccharides can react with each other to form disaccharides and polysaccharides. This
involves the formation of a glycosidic bond between the anomeric carbon of one
monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group. For example, glucose molecules can link together to
form maltose or cellulose.
Reaction of Monosaccharides

9. 4. Esterification:
Monosaccharides can react with acids to form esters. For example, glucose can react with
acetic acid to form glucose pentaacetate.
5. Formation of Glycosides, N-glycosides, and O-glycosides:
Monosaccharides can react with alcohols or amines to form glycosides. For example, glucose
can react with methanol to form methyl glucoside.
3. Glycosidic Bond Formation:
Monosaccharides can react with each other to form disaccharides and polysaccharides. This
involves the formation of a glycosidic bond between the anomeric carbon of one
monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group of another. For example, glucose molecules can link
together to form maltose or cellulose.

10. •Digestion of carbohydrates starts at
the mouth.
•In mouth, food undergoes
mastication,during mastication, food
comes in contact with saliva
(secreted by salivary gland)
•saliva contain salivary amylase
(ptyalin)
•further digestion of carbohydrates
occurs in small intestine by pancreatic
enzyme
•food bolus reaches the small intestine
from stomach where it meets the
pancreatic juice
•pancreatic juice contains enzyme called
pancreatic amylase (amylopsin) similar
to salivary amylase
•digestion of carbohydrates
temporarily stops in the stomach
•the action of salivary amylase stops
in stomach because of high acidity
of stomach
•no carbohydrates splitting enzymes
available in gastric juice
Digestion of Carbohydrates
DIGESTION IN
MOUTH
DIGESTION IN
STOMACH
DIGESTION IN
INTESTINE

11. •it hydrolyzes the dextrins to
mixture of maltose, isomaltose,
limit dextrin
action of intestinal brush border
enZyme
•these enzymes are responsible for
final digestion of carbohydrates
Two phase of
intestinal digestion
•digestion due to
pancreatic amylase
•digestion due to
intestinal brush
border enzyme
Action of pancreatic
amylase

12. Metabolic Control of Carbohydrate
Metabolism
Carbohydrates metabolism – It is a fundamental biochemical process that ensures a constant
supply of energy to living cells. Just as an oil furnace uses oil (its fuel) to produce heat, the cells
of the body use carbohydrates as their cellular energy (ATP).
The most important carbohydrate is glucose, Glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the major
breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion. Glucose is also the major fuel used for making
ATP.
The liver is an exemption; it routinely uses fats as well, thus saving glucose for other body cells.
Essentially, glucose is broken apart piece by piece, and some of the chemical energy released
when its bond is broken is captured and used to bind phosphate to molecules to make ATP.

13. The carbon atoms released from glucose leave the cells as carbon dioxide, and the
hydrogen atoms removed (which contain energy-rich electrons) are eventually combined
with oxygen to form water. These oxygen-using events are referred to collectively as cellular
respiration.
Cellular respiration - is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and produces ATP.
The three main metabolic pathways involved in cellular respiration are glycolysis, the citric
acid Cycle, and the electron transport chain.
• The citric acid Cycle – occurs in the mitochondria and produce virtually all the carbon
dioxide that results during cell respiration.
• The electron transport chain – is where the action is for ATP production.

14. Glycolysis
* Process of breaking down Glucose
to form energy.
* Product: Two molecules of pyruvate,
ATP, NADH, and Water
* Location: Cytoplasm
* Does not necessarily require oxygen

15. Glycolysis
* Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract
energy from glucose by splitting it into two
three-carbon molecules called pyruvates.
* As the word itself indicates, this a splitting
(lysis) of sugar or some other carbohydrate
(glyco). This process occurs in the cytoplasm
of the cell and does not necessarily require the
presence of oxygen that is why it is a common
process in both the aerobic respiration and the
anaerobic pathway.

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