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![Fig. 187. Plan of lower gymnasium, Priene. (Priene,
Fig. 271.)
The two gymnasia excavated by the Germans at Priene[836]
illustrate
the earlier and the later types. The lower gymnasium (Fig. 187)
which adjoins the stadium near the south wall of the town appears
to have been built between the years 130 and 120 B.C. It is very
similar in plan to the Vitruvian palaestra, consisting of a court about
35 metres square surrounded by a colonnade. On the north side,
facing south, the colonnade is double, as recommended by Vitruvius.
On this side and on the west a number of rooms open into it; on the
other two sides there are none. The entrance is in the centre of the
west side, and is in the form of an Ionic propylaion. To the north of
it is an exedra fitted with stone benches, and in the north-west
corner is the Loutron or bathroom, which is in excellent preservation
and extremely interesting. Along the north side is placed a row of
stone troughs into which water flows from a row of lions’ heads
about 3 feet from the ground (Fig. 188). On either side of the
doorway in the south wall are remains of stone benches, in front of
which are troughs in the floor, so that people could sit there and
bathe their feet. There is no trace of any hot baths in this
gymnasium. In the centre of the north wall is the ephebeion, a large
lofty room, open in front save for two massive pillars. There are
stone benches round the walls, the upper part of which was
decorated by an elaborate arrangement of half pillars and
architraves, on either side of a round arched niche containing a large
statue of a draped man. The walls and pillars are covered with
names of those who used the hall, usually in the form ὁ τόπος
Νέστορος τοῦ Νέστορος, “the place of Nestor, the son of Nestor.”
Another large hall at the north-east corner has some traces of
shelves, and may have been used as a place for undressing and
leaving clothes. The northern side of the gymnasium is cut out of
the slope of the hill, and was evidently two-storied. Above the
ephebeion seems to have been a large square room cut still farther
back into the hill. Perhaps there was an entrance from the street](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-22-2048.jpg)
![the first century B.C. “From a desire that every young man might
attend the gymnasium for the culture of his body, he had the
furnace lighted all through the winter.”[837]
Zosimus seems to have been an enthusiastic educationalist. Not only
did he provide for the physical training and recreation of the young
“a punch-ball, and hoops, and also balls and weapons,” he also
provided for the students a teacher in literature. He instituted
competitions in all accomplishments of mind and body, and showed
the most lavish generosity in furnishing oil and unguents in the
gymnasium and in the bath, for all visitors to the festivals of Priene.
Among the competitions which he instituted were a “squill fight”
(σκιλλομαχία), and boxing in clothes (ἐν εἵμασι). For the former he
gave a heifer as a prize, while each successful boxer received a
golden fillet. The precise meaning of the “squill fight” is uncertain; it
was perhaps some sort of ceremonial contest connected with the
worship of Pan. The wearing of clothes in boxing was possibly a
concession to the Roman prejudice against nudity.
Equally interesting are the extensive remains of the gymnasia at
Pergamum recently excavated by the German archaeologists.[838]
These remains belong mostly to the second century A.D., but many
traces of earlier buildings survive. Built originally in the second
century B.C., or earlier, under the early kings of Pergamum, the
gymnasia underwent various modifications and reconstructions in
the succeeding centuries, and may be regarded as typical of the
gymnasia existing in Hellenistic and Roman times in these rich cities
of the East, which, after the loss of Greek independence, became
the chief centres of athletic activity. Like the gymnasium at Delphi,
they bear witness to the ingenuity of the Greeks in adapting their
buildings to the exigencies of the ground, while the magnitude of
the work involved is a striking proof of the wealth of the Attalidae.
They were built on a series of three terraces cut out of the steep
face of the hill above the road which led up to the upper city. The
lowest terrace at its western end is some twelve metres above the
road, and the other terraces are about the same height above one
another. The terraces are supported by numerous retaining walls,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-24-2048.jpg)
![strengthened by buttresses and cross walls forming a series of
compartments filled up with earth and rubble. Each terrace formed a
separate gymnasium, devoted respectively to the use of boys,
epheboi, and young men. It seems that there were originally four
terraces, corresponding perhaps to the four gymnasia mentioned in
an inscription of the time of Attalus III. (146 B.C.).[839]
In the time of
Tiberius, Pergamum possessed five gymnasia, and at a later period
six, but the site of these additional gymnasia is unknown at present.
Elder men, and foreigners too, had the privilege of using the
gymnasia. An inscription in honour of Metrodorus,[840]
a
gymnasiarchos who lived at the close of the second century B.C.,
records that besides offering prizes for boys and epheboi he spent a
considerable sum in providing “elder men” with “all things necessary
for their health.” The generosity of these gymnasiarchoi is frequently
recorded in inscriptions. The office seems to have been held by the
most distinguished citizens. The general direction of education was
in the hands of four Paidonomoi.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-25-2048.jpg)
![served as lodgings for competitors. These rooms must have been a
late addition; for in the original building there ran underneath the
half-open corridor a second vaulted corridor, the windows of which
must have been blocked by the later buildings. This covered running
track (crypto-porticus) seems originally to have looked out on a
fourth terrace dividing the upper and middle terraces, the northern
half of which was subsequently occupied by the foundations of the
rooms described, while the southern half was dug away so as to
form part of the new double colonnade of the middle terrace. From
this date the vaulted corridor became useless for athletic purposes.
The eastern half of the terrace is occupied by the thermae, with the
details of which we are not concerned.
Pending the final publication of the results of the excavations, it is
useless to try to determine the uses of the various buildings. Some
of these are mentioned in inscriptions. Diodorus, the son of
Heroidas,[841]
a distinguished citizen who filled the office of
gymnasiarchos about the year 127 B.C., restored the gymnasium of
the young men, and repaired the covered colonnade, περίπατος,
surrounding the court. Further, finding that the konisterion or
dusting-room was quite unworthy of the gymnasium, he built
another at his own expense with a marble exedra in front, and
rebuilt in marble the cold bath adjoining it. Metrodorus, whom we
have already mentioned, placed several public basins (ληνοί) in the
bathroom and improved the water-supply. He placed in the
sphairisterion two public basins described as λουτῆρας, which seem
to have been used to hold oil, and he also made suitable provision
for the safe keeping of clothes. In recognition of these gifts his
statue was erected in the paradromis of the gymnasium.
Athletics being an essential part of Greek education, the gymnasia
were naturally under the control of the various magistrates charged
with the education and discipline of the young. The titles and
functions of these magistrates and also of the officials who formed
the staff of the gymnasia varied considerably at different times and
places, and the differences between them are therefore very ill-
defined. To discuss them fully is impossible within the limits of this](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-28-2048.jpg)
![book, nor would it be profitable, most of the details which we know
about them belonging to Hellenistic and Roman periods. I shall,
therefore, confine myself to a brief general account of the most
important of these officials, referring the reader for fuller details to
special works dealing with the subject.
The gymnasiarchos[842]
must have been originally the magistrate in
charge of the gymnasium, and it can only be an accident that the
earliest officials of this name whom we know of, the gymnasiarchoi
of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries, had no such general
control of the gymnasia and were little more than lampadarchoi,
responsible for the training of teams for the various torch-races
which were one of the favourite amusements of the Athenian
populace. Perhaps the reason for this narrow use of the term was
that from the time of Solon, the discipline and education of the
young, and consequently the supervision of the gymnasia, was in
the hands of a board of ten called sophronistai, while at the close of
the fourth century we find a single magistrate, the kosmetes,
apparently taking over their functions and exercising supreme
control over the epheboi. Hence there was at Athens no room for a
special gymnasiarchos such as we find in many Greek states from
the third century onwards, and such as must undoubtedly have
existed at a much earlier date, if we may trust the obvious meaning
of the title.
The gymnasiarchia at Athens was one of the regular leitourgiai or
public services exacted from rich citizens for the benefit of the
sovereign people. The duty of the gymnasiarchos in early days was
to train a team of youths or of boys, or sometimes two teams, for
one of the many torch-races. These teams represented the different
tribes, each one of which selected a certain number of names of rich
tribesmen and submitted them to the King Archon to make the final
choice. The selected gymnasiarchos had to collect and train a team,
find their instructors, provide oil and torches, and pay for all other
expenses. If his team was successful he dedicated a memorial of the
victory to the gods, and in return for all his trouble his name figured
alone or at the head of his epheboi in the official list of victors, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-29-2048.jpg)
![in records of the victory. He doubtless exercised some authority over
the epheboi in his tribe, or at least over those in his team, but had
no general control over the public gymnasia.
In Hellenistic and Roman times the gymnasiarchos appears as a sort
of minister of education, maintaining discipline among the young,
exercising control over the gymnasia, and generally providing out of
his own pocket many of the expenses incurred. Sometimes the
gymnasiarchia is still a voluntary service. Such was the case at
Athens, and in many other states especially in Asia Minor under the
Empire. Among the distinguished men who undertook this office we
find Marcus Antonius at Athens and at Alexandria, Tiberius and
Germanicus at Salamis in Cyprus, Titus at Naples, Hadrian at Eleusis,
and, needless to say, Herodes Atticus at Athens. The office was
usually held for a year, but was sometimes voluntarily renewed and
even continued for life and handed down from father to son. We
even hear of women serving as gymnasiarchoi.
Generally in the last three centuries B.C. the gymnasiarchia is not a
leitourgia but a public magistracy. The gymnasiarchos is appointed
by the assembly and holds office for one year. At Ceos[843]
he has to
be over thirty years of age. An inscription from Phintia[844]
tells us
that he has charge of the epheboi, the neoteroi, and generally of
those who use the gymnasia, and of all business connected with the
gymnasia. He is assisted by subordinates, sometimes by a
hypogymnasiarchos, sometimes by a paidonomos who looks after
the younger boys, sometimes by other gymnasiarchoi responsible for
youths of different ages. At Teos[845]
he is charged with the
appointment and payment of the hoplomachos and the instructor in
the use of the bow and the javelin. He is responsible for the
discipline of the young, checks rioting or disorder among them,
supervises their education in literature as well as athletics, above all
he personally superintends the military training of the epheboi, and
organises competitions to test their efficiency, He maintains
discipline sometimes with the rod, sometimes by means of fines.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-30-2048.jpg)
![Whether the gymnasiarchia was a leitourgia or a public magistracy it
involved considerable expense. The sums allotted by the state for
the service of the gymnasia were often ludicrously inadequate, and
the gymnasiarchos had usually to supplement them out of his own
pocket; often indeed, disdaining to use the public money at all, he
provided for all expenses himself. The chief expense was the
provision of oil. Even in a small state like Iasos the supply of oil for a
single gymnasium cost 450 denarii a month.[846]
During the Empire
the number of competitions, and consequently the expenses for oil
and other purposes, were multiplied at an extraordinary rate. At
Tauromenium the number of competitions rose from twenty-four a
year in A.D. 69 to eighty-one in A.D. 92.[847]
Sacrifices, processions,
feasts, prizes afforded ample scope to the liberality of the
gymnasiarchos, which often took a more permanent form in costly
repairs and additions to the buildings of the gymnasia and baths.
The gymnasiarchoi described above must not be confused with the
ephebic gymnasiarchoi at Athens, officers elected by the epheboi
from their own ranks. The expenses of training were borne to a
great extent by the epheboi themselves, and they seem, therefore,
often to have elected as captains rich youths who were willing to
provide wholly or in part for the public expenses, for any period from
a month to a year.
The actual teachers were the paidotribes and the gymnastes. The
paidotribes, as his name denotes, was properly the teacher of boys,
who trained their bodies as the schoolmaster did their minds; the
gymnastes was the trainer of athletes for athletic competitions. This
is the original distinction between the two, and though in practice
their functions often overlapped, and though in Plato the terms are
practically synonymous, the original distinction never entirely
disappeared.
The paidotribes existed long before the gymnastes, for athletic
exercises formed part of the national education long before the
demand for specialised athletic training arose. From the time of
Solon education was in the hands of the paidotribes and the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-31-2048.jpg)
![schoolmaster.[848]
In most states education was voluntary, and the
paidotribai were usually private teachers, who received fees for their
services. In the fourth century the fee seems to have been a mina
(about £4) for the whole course.[849]
Many of the paidotribai had
palaestrae of their own; failing that, they must have taken their
pupils to the public palaestrae and gymnasia, which they must in any
case have used for such exercises as required more space than could
be found in the ordinary palaestra.[850]
Besides those private
paidotribai who took pupils from the age of seven upwards, there
were others who were paid by the state to superintend the training
of the epheboi. At Teos the paidotribes received in the third century
500 drachmae a year.[851]
The training of the epheboi was practical
and military and had no connexion with professional athletics, and
the paidotribes regularly figures in the ephebic inscriptions down to
the latest times.
Thus the paidotribes had charge of boys from their seventh to their
twentieth year. But the training which he gave was not of course
sufficient for those who aspired to win prizes in the great games.
These required special natural abilities and special practice for the
development of their natural abilities; and the special practice they
required was supplied by the gymnastai.[852]
There was, however,
nothing to prevent a successful paidotribes if he possessed the
necessary skill and knowledge employing them in training athletes.
It was not every one who could afford the services of a champion
boxer or wrestler. Further, the paidotribes might also devote himself
to medical gymnastics.[853]
Herodicus of Selymbria, the founder of
medical gymnastics, is said to be have been a paidotribes who
suffered from ill-health, and discovered from personal experience the
means of treating disease by diet and exercise. Hence the
paidotribes might be also a gymnastes. But such training and such
knowledge were really outside his sphere, which was that of the drill
sergeant, whose duty it is to teach certain definite movements and
exercises to boys of various ages. As athletics became more and
more professional, and medical gymnastics developed, the difference
between the paidotribes and the gymnastes increased, till in Galen](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-32-2048.jpg)
![and Philostratus we find the paidotribes subordinated to the
gymnastes as the mere drill sergeant to the professor of physical
culture. Galen compares them respectively to the cook and the
physician.[854]
The gymnastes can hardly have come into existence much before
the beginning of the fifth century.[855]
His work consisted partly in
perfecting his pupils in some particular form of athletics, partly in
developing their strength and training them into proper condition.
The earlier gymnastai, such as those whom we read of in Pindar and
Bacchylides, devoted themselves chiefly to practical instruction. They
were often themselves successful athletes, especially boxers and
wrestlers, who having retired from competition took to teaching, and
were doubtless richly rewarded by their patrons. Such was Melesias
the trainer of thirty victors in wrestling and the pankration;[856]
Iccus
of Tarentum, a winner in the pentathlon at Olympia in Ol. 76, the
most celebrated trainer of his day; Dromeus of Stymphalus and
Pythagoras of Samos, to whom were attributed the introduction of a
meat diet. These trainers, like other teachers, went wherever they
could find a market. Menander of Athens trained Pytheas of Aegina
to victory.[857]
We cannot for a moment suppose that men like these
descended to the work of the ordinary paidotribes, though, as I have
suggested, the reverse must often have been the case. It was an
age of science, and in the hands of gymnastai and paidotribai there
arose in the middle of the fifth century a new science of gymnastic
which aimed not at the performance of particular exercises but at
the production of certain physical conditions (ἕξις),[858]
especially the
condition required for athletic success. Its professors in the fourth
century are in ordinary speech called paidotribai, and Isocrates[859]
describes it as a branch of the art of the paidotribes, undoubtedly
because so many paidotribai professed it. The new science was
closely allied to medicine. The trainer, like the doctor, required some
knowledge of diet and the effects on the body of different kinds of
food;[860]
he required, too, some knowledge of the body itself, and
the effect on it of various exercises; he required, too, to be a judge
of the human animal, and to be able to tell in what form of athletics](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-33-2048.jpg)
![any individual had most chance of excelling, and what particular
form of training he required.[861]
The ideal gymnastes, according to
Aristotle,[862]
should know what is the ideally best condition for the
ideally best man, what is the best for the average man, and what is
the best for any particular man. Unfortunately the art of the
gymnastes was almost from the first connected with the training of
professional athletes, and the condition which they aimed at was
that artificial condition required for success in some particular form
of athletics. At the same time medical gymnastics was corrupted by
the quackery which from the fourth century was rampant in all
departments of knowledge.[863]
There were also other officials connected with the gymnasia. The
xystarches was the president of one of those guilds of professional
athletes which we find under the Empire. The aleiptes was properly
the person who oiled and rubbed people who exercised in the
gymnasia. This was part of the work of the paidotribes or the
gymnastes, and it is doubtful whether there were special officials for
the purpose. In Aristotle aleiptes is merely another name for
gymnastes.[864]
In Roman times we find slaves (unctores) performing
this work in the public baths, and possibly these existed in the Greek
gymnasia. Subordinate officials are also mentioned, the
hypopaidotribes or assistant, and others who had charge of the
palaestra and its contents, variously described as palaistrophylax,
epimeletes, epistates. Besides these there were in Hellenistic times
special instructors for special exercises, the sphairistes who taught
ball-play, the akontistes and toxotes who gave instruction in the use
of the javelin and the bow, and the hoplomachos who gave lessons
in the use of arms.
Of the special training prescribed for athletes little is known beyond
a few details as to diet which have been noticed in the earlier
chapters of this book, and a few other details noticed under the
special exercises with which they are connected. There were
manuals of athletic training, but all are lost except the late treatise
by Philostratus to which we have so often referred. With regard to
athletics as a branch of education we are somewhat better informed,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-34-2048.jpg)
![and it is instructive to compare the physical training given in the fifth
and fourth centuries B.C. with the system described by Galen in the
second century A.D.
The training given in the earlier period was based on those athletic
exercises which at all times formed the programme of Greek athletic
meetings. To these we may add ball-play, which is enumerated by
Plautus among the exercises which formed a young Greek’s training
till the age of twenty.[865]
These exercises were taught progressively,
at first the simple movements or positions (σχήματα) separately,
then combinations of these movements which involved more
exertion.[866]
Many of these movements admitted of being taught to
classes as drill to the accompaniment of music. Such drill, especially
with halteres, is sometimes represented on vases.[867]
The various
holds and throws of wrestling were taught in this way, and we
possess on the Oxyrhynchus papyrus, to which we have already
referred, a portion of such a wrestling lesson.[868]
Dances could be
utilised in the same way: the movements of wrestling were imitated
in a dance performed by Spartan boys called the gymnopaidike[869]
just as the movements of war were imitated in the Pyrrhic and other
war dances. In the fourth century particular attention was given to
exercises of a military character, the use of weapons of all sorts, and
riding, but these exercises must have been confined chiefly to older
pupils of the age of the epheboi. Proficiency in all the various
exercises taught was encouraged by numerous festivals and local
competitions where prizes were offered for boys of various ages. The
training of teams for the torch-races and choirs for dancing
competitions, though not formally a part of the education given by
the paidotribes, must have afforded those who took part in them a
considerable amount of healthy and agreeable exercise.
Life in this period was spent mostly in the open air, and the formal
training of the palaestra was supplemented by hunting, swimming,
rowing, and other forms of exercise. Cities in Greece were small, and
hunting was as a rule easily obtainable. In Attica, owing to the
increase of population and the spread of cultivation, game was
scarce, and sport had therefore declined in Xenophon’s time; but the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-35-2048.jpg)
![red-figured vases prove its popularity in the fifth century. Swimming
and diving were common recreations. Every Greek could swim, and
not to know how to swim was as much a sign of an uneducated
person as ignorance of letters.[870]
Rowing must also have been a
universal accomplishment, at least among the Greeks who lived near
the sea; but we know nothing of the teaching of rowing or
swimming. Probably the Greek boy taught himself to swim and row
or picked it up from his fellows.
Here too the element of competition came in. At Hermione we hear
of a competition in diving (or perhaps swimming[871]
), and also boat-
races.[872]
We have seen that boat-racing took place at the Isthmia
and at various Athenian festivals. There was also a boat-race at the
Actian festival in the time of Augustus; and Professor Percy Gardner
has shown that there is a possible reference to this contest on the
coins of Corcyra and Nicopolis, on which a victorious galley is
sometimes represented. The coins suggest a race between galleys
such as that described in the Aeneid, but the boats used in the
Athenian races were probably not triremes, but small boats with a
single bank of oars, tender-boats (ὑπηρετικά) such as always
accompanied a fleet. A boat of this description is depicted on a stele
in the Museum of Athens of Hellenistic or Roman period (Fig. 190).
It is a long narrow boat with a pointed beak in front, and a curved
aplustre at the stern, and in it there sit eight oarsmen. There is no
sign of the oars. The men are naked and are sitting at ease, and
bow, who is the smallest of the crew, holds a palm-branch. The
number eight is of course a pure accident. There is no cox in the
boat, but on the upper part of the stele are three figures standing, a
draped figure in the centre, probably the gymnasiarchos who fitted
out and trained the crew, on his left a naked youth bearing a palm,
on his right a youth in a chlamys crowning the man in the centre.
These two Professor Gardner identifies with the stroke and cox of
the victorious crew.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-36-2048.jpg)
![Fig. 190. Stele representing victorious crew. Athens. (Hellenistic
period?)
When we come to Galen, we seem to pass from the free and open
atmosphere of the playing-field and the country into the artificial air
of the town gymnasium. The simple exercises of the earlier period,
so inseparably bound up with the lives and habits of the people,
have given place to a scientific system of physical training based on
the teaching of generations of gymnastai. In his treatise on
Health[873]
he describes at length the exercises suited for youths
between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. He distinguishes
exercises for the legs, the arms, and the trunk. He further classifies
exercises into those which exert the muscles and give them tone
without violent movement (τὰ εὔτονα), quick movements which
promote activity (τὰ τάχεα), and violent exercises (τὰ σφόδρα). As
examples of the first class he mentions digging, driving, carrying
heavy weights, rope-climbing, and exercises of resistance such as
holding the arms extended while another person tries to pull them
down. Among quick exercises he enumerates running, sparring, the
use of the korykos or punch-ball, ball-play, rolling on the ground
“either alone or with others,” an exercise which seems to resemble
“tackling” at football, and a variety of leg and arm movements. Many
of these movements are well known in our modern physical drill.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/96979-250504130330-5b0a6ba5/75/Approaches-to-Economic-Geography-Towards-a-geographical-political-economy-1st-Edition-Ray-Hudson-37-2048.jpg)
Approaches to Economic Geography Towards a geographical political economy 1st Edition Ray Hudson
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- 5. Approaches to EconomicGeography Towards a geographical political economy 1st Edition Ray Hudson Digital Instant Download Author(s): Ray Hudson ISBN(s): 9780367870713, 0367870711 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 4.49 MB Year: 2016 Language: english
- 7. Approaches to EconomicGeography The last four decades have seen major changes in the global economy, with the collapse of communism and the spread of capitalism into parts of the world from which it had previously been excluded. Beginning with a grounding in Marxian political economy, this book explores a range of new ideas as to what economic geography can offer as it intersects with public policy and planning in the new globalised economy. Approaches to Economic Geography draws together the formidable work of Ray Hudson into an authoritative collection, offering a unique approach to the understanding of the changing geographies of the global economy. With chapters covering subjects ranging from uneven development to social economy, this volume explores how a range of perspectives, including evolutionary and institutional approaches, can further elucidate how such economies and their geographies are reproduced. Subsequent chapters argue that greater attention must be given to the relationships between the economy and nature, and that more consideration needs to be given to the growing significance of illegal activities in the economy. The book will be of interest to students studying economic geography as well as researchers and policy makers that recognise the importance of the relationships between economy and geography as we move towards a sustainable future economy and society. Ray Hudson is a Fellow of the British Academy, the Academy for the Social Sciences, the Regional Studies Association and the Royal Geographical Society and is a Member of Academia Europaea. He is also a long-standing Professor of Geography at Durham University, UK.
- 8. Regions and Cities SeriesEditor in Chief Susan M. Christopherson, Cornell University, USA Editors Maryann Feldman, University of Georgia, USA Gernot Grabher, HafenCity University Hamburg, Germany Ron Martin, University of Cambridge, UK Martin Perry, Massey University, New Zealand Kieran P. Donaghy, Cornell University, USA In today’s globalised, knowledge-driven and networked world, regions and cities have assumed heightened significance as the interconnected nodes of economic, social and cultural production, and as sites of new modes of economic and territorial governance and policy experimentation. This book series brings together incisive and critically engaged international and inter-disciplinary research on this resurgence of regions and cities, and should be of interest to geographers, economists, sociologists, political scientists and cultural scholars, as well as to policy makers involved in regional and urban development. For more information on the Regional Studies Association visit www. regionalstudies.org There is a 30% discount available to RSA members on books in the Regions and Cities series, and other subject related Taylor and Francis books and e-books including Routledge titles. To order just e-mail alex.robinson@tandf. co.uk, or phone on +44 (0) 20 7017 6924 and declare your RSA membership. You can also visit www.routledge.com and use the discount code: RSA0901
- 9. 101. Approaches to EconomicGeography Towards a geographical political economy Ray Hudson 100. Secondary Cities and Development Edited by Lochner Marais, Etienne Nel and Ronnie Donaldson 99. Technology and the City Systems, applications and implications Tan Yigitcanlar 98. Smaller Cities in a World of Competitiveness Peter Karl Kresl and Daniele Ietri 97. Code and the City Edited by Rob Kitchin and Sung-Yueh Perng 96. The UK Regional–National Economic Problem Geography, globalisation and governance Philip McCann 95. Skills and Cities Edited by Sako Musterd, Marco Bontje and Jan Rouwendal 94. Higher Education and the Creative Economy Beyond the campus Edited by Roberta Comunian and Abigail Gilmore 93. Making Cultural Cities in Asia Mobility, assemblage, and the politics of aspirational urbanism Edited by Jun Wang, Tim Oakes and Yang Yang 92. Leadership and the City Power, strategy and networks in the making of knowledge cities Markku Sotarauta 91. Evolutionary Economic Geography Theoretical and empirical progress Edited by Dieter Kogler 90. Cities in Crisis Socio-spatial impacts of the economic crisis in Southern European cities Edited by Jörg Knieling and Frank Othengrafen 89. Socio-Economic Segregation in European Capital Cities East meets West Edited by Tiit Tammaru, Szymon Marcińczak, Maarten van Ham, Sako Musterd 88. People, Places and Policy Knowing contemporary Wales through new localities Edited by Martin Jones, Scott Orford and Victoria Macfarlane 87. The London Olympics and Urban Development The mega-event city Edited by Gavin Poynter, Valerie Viehoff and Yang Li 86. Making 21st Century Knowledge Complexes Technopoles of the world revisited Edited by Julie Tian Miao, Paul Benneworth and Nicholas A. Phelps 85. Soft Spaces in Europe Re-negotiating governance, boundaries and borders Edited by Philip Allmendinger, Graham Haughton, Jörg Knieling and Frank Othengrafen 84. Regional Worlds: Advancing the Geography of Regions Edited by Martin Jones and Anssi Paasi 83. Place-making and Urban Development New challenges for contemporary planning and design Pier Carlo Palermo and Davide Ponzini
- 10. 82. Knowledge, Networksand Policy Regional studies in postwar Britain and beyond James Hopkins 81. Dynamics of Economic Spaces in the Global Knowledge-based Economy Theory and East Asian cases Sam Ock Park 80. Urban Competitiveness Theory and practice Daniele Letri and Peter Kresl 79. Smart Specialisation Opportunities and challenges for regional innovation policy Dominique Foray 78. The Age of Intelligent Cities Smart environments and innovation-for-all strategies Nicos Komninos 77. Space and Place in Central and Eastern Europe Historical trends and perspectives Gyula Horváth 76. Territorial Cohesion in Rural Europe The relational turn in rural development Edited by Andrew Copus and Philomena de Lima 75. The Global Competitiveness of Regions Robert Huggins, Hiro Izushi, Daniel Prokop and Piers Thompson 74. The Social Dynamics of Innovation Networks Edited by Roel Rutten, Paul Benneworth, Dessy Irawati and Frans Boekema 73. The European Territory From historical roots to global challenges Jacques Robert 72. Urban Innovation Systems What makes them tick? Willem van Winden, Erik Braun, Alexander Otgaar and Jan-Jelle Witte 71. Shrinking Cities A global perspective Edited by Harry W. Richardson and Chang Woon Nam 70. Cities, State and Globalization City-regional governance Tassilo Herrschel 69. The Creative Class Goes Global Edited by Charlotta Mellander, Richard Florida, Bjørn Asheim and Meric Gertler 68. Entrepreneurial Knowledge, Technology and the Transformation of Regions Edited by Charlie Karlsson, Börje Johansson and Roger Stough 67. The Economic Geography of the IT Industry in the Asia Pacific Region Edited by Philip Cooke, Glen Searle and Kevin O’Connor 66. Working Regions Reconnecting innovation and production in the knowledge economy Jennifer Clark 65. Europe’s Changing Geography The impact of inter-regional networks Edited by Nicola Bellini and Ulrich Hilpert 64. The Value of Arts and Culture for Regional Development A Scandinavian perspective Edited by Lisbeth Lindeborg and Lars Lindkvist 63. The University and the City John Goddard and Paul Vallance 62. Re-framing Regional Development Evolution, innovation and transition Edited by Philip Cooke 61. Networking Regionalised Innovative Labour Markets Edited by Ulrich Hilpert and Helen Lawton Smith
- 11. 60. Leadership andChange in Sustainable Regional Development Edited by Markku Sotarauta, Ina Horlings and Joyce Liddle 59. Regional Development Agencies: The Next Generation? Networking, knowledge and regional policies Edited by Nicola Bellini, Mike Danson and Henrik Halkier 58. Community-based Entrepreneurship and Rural Development Creating favourable conditions for small businesses in Central Europe Matthias Fink, Stephan Loidl and Richard Lang 57. Creative Industries and Innovation in Europe Concepts, measures and comparative case studies Edited by Luciana Lazzeretti 56. Innovation Governance in an Open Economy Shaping regional nodes in a globalized world Edited by Annika Rickne, Staffan Laestadius and Henry Etzkowitz 55. Complex Adaptive Innovation Systems Relatedness and transversality in the evolving region Philip Cooke 54. Creating Knowledge Locations in Cities Innovation and integration challenges Willem van Winden, Luis de Carvalho, Erwin van Tujil, Jeroen van Haaren and Leo van den Berg 53. Regional Development in Northern Europe Peripherality, marginality and border issues Edited by Mike Danson and Peter De Souza 52. Promoting Silicon Valleys in Latin America Luciano Ciravegna 51. Industrial Policy Beyond the Crisis Regional, national and international perspectives Edited by David Bailey, Helena Lenihan and Josep-Maria Arauzo-Carod 50. Just Growth Inclusion and prosperity in America’s metropolitan regions Chris Benner and Manuel Pastor 49. Cultural Political Economy of Small Cities Edited by Anne Lorentzen and Bas van Heur 48. The Recession and Beyond Local and regional responses to the downturn Edited by David Bailey and Caroline Chapain 47. Beyond Territory Edited by Harald Bathelt, Maryann Feldman and Dieter F. Kogler 46. Leadership and Place Edited by Chris Collinge, John Gibney and Chris Mabey 45. Migration in the 21st Century Rights, outcomes, and policy Kim Korinek and Thomas Maloney 44. The Futures of the City Region Edited by Michael Neuman and Angela Hull 43. The Impacts of Automotive Plant Closures A tale of two cities Edited by Andrew Beer and Holli Evans 42. Manufacturing in the New Urban Economy Willem van Winden, Leo van den Berg, Luis de Carvalho and Erwin van Tuijl
- 12. 41. Globalizing RegionalDevelopment in East Asia Production networks, clusters, and entrepreneurship Edited by Henry Wai-chung Yeung 40. China and Europe The implications of the rise of China as a global economic power for Europe Edited by Klaus Kunzmann, Willy A. Schmid and Martina Koll-Schretzenmayr 39. Business Networks in Clusters and Industrial Districts The governance of the global value chain Edited by Fiorenza Belussi and Alessia Sammarra 38. Whither Regional Studies? Edited by Andy Pike 37. Intelligent Cities and Globalisation of Innovation Networks Nicos Komninos 36. Devolution, Regionalism and Regional Development The UK experience Edited by Jonathan Bradbury 35. Creative Regions Technology, culture and knowledge entrepreneurship Edited by Philip Cooke and Dafna Schwartz 34. European Cohesion Policy Willem Molle 33. Geographies of the New Economy Critical reflections Edited by Peter W. Daniels, Andrew Leyshon, Michael J. Bradshaw and Jonathan Beaverstock 32. The Rise of the English Regions? Edited by Irene Hardill, Paul Benneworth, Mark Baker and Leslie Budd 31. Regional Development in the Knowledge Economy Edited by Philip Cooke and Andrea Piccaluga 30. Regional Competitiveness Edited by Ron Martin, Michael Kitson and Peter Tyler 29. Clusters and Regional Development Critical reflections and explorations Edited by Bjørn Asheim, Philip Cooke and Ron Martin 28. Regions, Spatial Strategies and Sustainable Development David Counsell and Graham Haughton 27. Sustainable Cities Graham Haughton and Colin Hunter 26. Geographies of Labour Market Inequality Edited by Ron Martin and Philip S. Morrison 25. Regional Innovation Strategies The challenge for less-favoured regions Edited by Kevin Morgan and Claire Nauwelaers 24. Out of the Ashes? The social impact of industrial contraction and regeneration on Britain’s mining communities Chas Critcher, Bella Dicks, David Parry and David Waddington 23. Restructuring Industry and Territory The experience of Europe’s regions Edited by Anna Giunta, Arnoud Lagendijk and Andy Pike
- 13. 22. Foreign DirectInvestment and the Global Economy Corporate and institutional dynamics of global-localisation Edited by Jeremy Alden and Nicholas F. Phelps 21. Community Economic Development Edited by Graham Haughton 20. Regional Development Agencies in Europe Edited by Charlotte Damborg, Mike Danson and Henrik Halkier 19. Social Exclusion in European Cities Processes, experiences and responses Edited by Judith Allen, Goran Cars and Ali Madanipour 18. Metropolitan Planning in Britain A comparative study Edited by Peter Roberts, Kevin Thomas and Gwyndaf Williams 17. Unemployment and Social Exclusion Landscapes of labour inequality and social exclusion Edited by Sally Hardy, Paul Lawless and Ron Martin 16. Multinationals and European Integration Trade, investment and regional development Edited by Nicholas A. Phelps 15. The Coherence of EU Regional Policy Contrasting perspectives on the structural funds Edited by John Bachtler and Ivan Turok 14. New Institutional Spaces TECs and the remaking of economic governance Martin Jones, Foreword by Jamie Peck 13. Regional Policy in Europe S. S. Artobolevskiy 12. Innovation Networks and Learning Regions? James Simmie 11. British Regionalism and Devolution The challenges of state reform and European integration Edited by Jonathan Bradbury and John Mawson 10. Regional Development Strategies A European perspective Edited by Jeremy Alden and Philip Boland 9. Union Retreat and the Regions The shrinking landscape of organised labour Ron Martin, Peter Sunley and Jane Wills 8. The Regional Dimension of Transformation in Central Europe Grzegorz Gorzelak 7. The Determinants of Small Firm Growth An inter-regional study in the United Kingdom 1986–90 Richard Barkham, Graham Gudgin, Mark Hart and Eric Hanvey 6. The Regional Imperative Regional planning and governance in Britain, Europe and the United States Urlan A. Wannop
- 14. 5. An EnlargedEurope Regions in competition? Edited by Louis Albrechts, Sally Hardy, Mark Hart and Anastasios Katos 4. Spatial Policy in a Divided Nation Edited by Richard T. Harrison and Mark Hart 3. Regional Development in the 1990s The British Isles in transition EditedbyRonMartinandPeterTownroe 2. Retreat from the Regions Corporate change and the closure of factories Stephen Fothergill and Nigel Guy 1. Beyond Green Belts Managing urban growth in the 21st century Edited by John Herington
- 15. Approaches to Economic Geography Towardsa geographical political economy Ray Hudson
- 16. First published 2016 byRoutledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Ray Hudson The right of Ray Hudson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-80408-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-75324-9 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Out of House Publishing
- 17. Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgements xvi 1Setting the scene: steps towards a geographical political economy 1 2 Conceptualising economies and their geographies: spaces, flows and circuits 23 3 ‘The learning economy, the learning firm and the learning region’: a sympathetic critique of the limits to learning 48 4 From knowledge-based economy to … knowledge-based economy? Reflections on changes in the economy and development policies in the north east of England 65 5 Re-thinking change in old industrial regions: reflecting on the experiences of north east England 88 6 Global production systems and European integration: de-regionalising, re-regionalising and re-scaling production systems in Europe 106 7 Life on the edge: navigating the competitive tensions between the ‘social’ and the ‘economic’ in the social economy and in its relations to the mainstream 121
- 18. xii Contents 8 Thinkingthrough the relationships between legal and illegal activities and economies: spaces, flows and pathways 140 9 Cultural political economy meets global production networks: a productive meeting? 160 10 Critical political economy and materials transformation 181 11 Resilient regions in an uncertain world: wishful thinking or a practical reality? 205 12 The future of economic geography and economic geographies of the future 222 References 230 Index 255
- 19. Preface Some 15 yearsago I published a couple of books which pulled together work that I’d been doing in economic geography and regional development since the early 1970s. This volume needs to be located and seen in relation to them. One of these was essentially a collection of already published papers (Hudson, 2000a). The other had a rather different purpose and was intended to offer a more substantial and synthetic statement of an approach to economic geography that I’d been exploring and seeking to develop over the previous quarter century (Hudson, 2001a). The starting point for this was grounded in Marxian political economy and its key concepts. It then sought to engage with subsequent developments deriving directly from Marxian approaches – for example in regulation and state theories – and I also began to explore ways in which analyses of economic geographies could be elaborated by drawing on other approaches that began from different conceptual starting points. In part, these points of departure related to conceptions of economic and social processes – such as evolutionary and institutional economics – and in part to approaches in the material and biophysical sciences, that had a very different purpose and epistemological starting point. This was – and is – not without its challenges. The rationale for so doing was two-fold. First, recognition that the capitalist economy had developed in many ways (organisationally, technically, spatially) since Marx was carrying out his seminal analyses in the nineteenth century. Second, recognition that Marxian political economy powerfully focused on the rationale of capitalist production and on so why capitalist economies were organised as they were. It revealed why spatially uneven development was an unavoidable aspect of the process of capitalist development, but did so at a high level of abstraction in terms of a particular conception of value theory. Switching from analyses at the level of values to that of prices (if you like, following the path from volume 1 to volume 3 of Capital) broadened understanding of how capitalist economies operated and developed particular socio-spatial forms but it seemed to me that there was scope to explore the extent to which other approaches to political economy, some of which had developed more or less directly from Marxian approaches (for example, regulation theories and state theories), others
- 20. xiv Preface that developedfrom different conceptual starting points (evolutionary and institutional economics for example) could be profitably explored as a way of developing more nuanced ‘middle level’ conceptual approaches that could elaborate on the what and how of capitalist economies. In addition, parts of the social sciences in the last quarter of the twentieth century were coming to acknowledge the centrality of spatiality to economic, political and social life and as a result there were increasing openings for economic geographers to engage with a range of social science disciplines and theoretical approaches (for example, with work on structuration and the relations between agency and structure). While some of this was explored in Producing Places it was only done so in a preliminary and tentative manner. In subsequent years I further explored approaches in parts of the social and biophysical sciences and also sought to broaden the conception of what counted as ‘the economy’ in a critical geographical political economy via a series of papers and book chapters. It is this that is reflected in this book, which, with the exception of one paper published in 1999, draws together material published after 2001, with the intention of developing a more nuanced and expansive approach to a geographical political economy but one that remains grounded in its roots in Marxian political economy. As such, the present volume is perhaps best regarded as a further instalment in an evolving project, bringing together a number of papers written over the last 15 or so years, still preliminary rather than definitive but hopefully one that moves things on from where they were. There are a further couple of points of clarification that I want to make about the material presented here. All of the chapters had their origins as single-authored papers. I have resisted the temptation to re-write them – while this has the disadvantage that I might now want to express some things differently, it would defeat the point of seeking to show how my approach to these issues has evolved over the years. Thus the chapters have been reproduced here more or less as they were originally, with only very minor editing to tidy up the text in places and the addition of an occa- sional footnote where events have moved on since the material was first published. The one substantive change has been to merge the references into a single section, in part to avoid repetition and save space. The restric- tion to sole-authored material is in response to comments by one of the reviewers of the earlier collection who – I can’t remember who it was, but the name isn’t the point – had taken issue with the fact that a small number of the chapters therein had been written as co-authored pieces, drawing on externally funded collaborative research projects (and of course with the permission of the co-authors, and making it explicit that the mater- ial had been co-authored). Rather than run the risk of similar criticism, it seemed safer to restrict the material here to papers that had been sole authored. That said, some (perhaps in various ways, given the nature of research and scholarship, all) of them do draw upon projects that were jointly carried out and I’d like to acknowledge the contribution of various colleagues who worked on them (including Ash Amin, Huw Beynon, Mike
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- 22. Fig. 187. Planof lower gymnasium, Priene. (Priene, Fig. 271.) The two gymnasia excavated by the Germans at Priene[836] illustrate the earlier and the later types. The lower gymnasium (Fig. 187) which adjoins the stadium near the south wall of the town appears to have been built between the years 130 and 120 B.C. It is very similar in plan to the Vitruvian palaestra, consisting of a court about 35 metres square surrounded by a colonnade. On the north side, facing south, the colonnade is double, as recommended by Vitruvius. On this side and on the west a number of rooms open into it; on the other two sides there are none. The entrance is in the centre of the west side, and is in the form of an Ionic propylaion. To the north of it is an exedra fitted with stone benches, and in the north-west corner is the Loutron or bathroom, which is in excellent preservation and extremely interesting. Along the north side is placed a row of stone troughs into which water flows from a row of lions’ heads about 3 feet from the ground (Fig. 188). On either side of the doorway in the south wall are remains of stone benches, in front of which are troughs in the floor, so that people could sit there and bathe their feet. There is no trace of any hot baths in this gymnasium. In the centre of the north wall is the ephebeion, a large lofty room, open in front save for two massive pillars. There are stone benches round the walls, the upper part of which was decorated by an elaborate arrangement of half pillars and architraves, on either side of a round arched niche containing a large statue of a draped man. The walls and pillars are covered with names of those who used the hall, usually in the form ὁ τόπος Νέστορος τοῦ Νέστορος, “the place of Nestor, the son of Nestor.” Another large hall at the north-east corner has some traces of shelves, and may have been used as a place for undressing and leaving clothes. The northern side of the gymnasium is cut out of the slope of the hill, and was evidently two-storied. Above the ephebeion seems to have been a large square room cut still farther back into the hill. Perhaps there was an entrance from the street
- 23. above into thisupper story. These upper rooms may have served as class-rooms. In Hellenistic times the gymnasium was often a school where training was given for mind as well as body. Fig. 188. Bathroom in gymnasium at Priene. (Priene, Fig. 278.) The upper gymnasium at Priene stood in the middle of the town. It was the older of the two, for we learn from an inscription that it already existed at the time when the lower gymnasium was being built. In its original plan it seems to have been very similar; but so many alterations have been made in it, and so much subsequent building has taken place on the site, that we cannot be certain of its details. What is certain is that in Roman times it was provided with hot baths. These baths are referred to in an interesting inscription detailing the services rendered by one Zosimus, who lived perhaps in
- 24. the first centuryB.C. “From a desire that every young man might attend the gymnasium for the culture of his body, he had the furnace lighted all through the winter.”[837] Zosimus seems to have been an enthusiastic educationalist. Not only did he provide for the physical training and recreation of the young “a punch-ball, and hoops, and also balls and weapons,” he also provided for the students a teacher in literature. He instituted competitions in all accomplishments of mind and body, and showed the most lavish generosity in furnishing oil and unguents in the gymnasium and in the bath, for all visitors to the festivals of Priene. Among the competitions which he instituted were a “squill fight” (σκιλλομαχία), and boxing in clothes (ἐν εἵμασι). For the former he gave a heifer as a prize, while each successful boxer received a golden fillet. The precise meaning of the “squill fight” is uncertain; it was perhaps some sort of ceremonial contest connected with the worship of Pan. The wearing of clothes in boxing was possibly a concession to the Roman prejudice against nudity. Equally interesting are the extensive remains of the gymnasia at Pergamum recently excavated by the German archaeologists.[838] These remains belong mostly to the second century A.D., but many traces of earlier buildings survive. Built originally in the second century B.C., or earlier, under the early kings of Pergamum, the gymnasia underwent various modifications and reconstructions in the succeeding centuries, and may be regarded as typical of the gymnasia existing in Hellenistic and Roman times in these rich cities of the East, which, after the loss of Greek independence, became the chief centres of athletic activity. Like the gymnasium at Delphi, they bear witness to the ingenuity of the Greeks in adapting their buildings to the exigencies of the ground, while the magnitude of the work involved is a striking proof of the wealth of the Attalidae. They were built on a series of three terraces cut out of the steep face of the hill above the road which led up to the upper city. The lowest terrace at its western end is some twelve metres above the road, and the other terraces are about the same height above one another. The terraces are supported by numerous retaining walls,
- 25. strengthened by buttressesand cross walls forming a series of compartments filled up with earth and rubble. Each terrace formed a separate gymnasium, devoted respectively to the use of boys, epheboi, and young men. It seems that there were originally four terraces, corresponding perhaps to the four gymnasia mentioned in an inscription of the time of Attalus III. (146 B.C.).[839] In the time of Tiberius, Pergamum possessed five gymnasia, and at a later period six, but the site of these additional gymnasia is unknown at present. Elder men, and foreigners too, had the privilege of using the gymnasia. An inscription in honour of Metrodorus,[840] a gymnasiarchos who lived at the close of the second century B.C., records that besides offering prizes for boys and epheboi he spent a considerable sum in providing “elder men” with “all things necessary for their health.” The generosity of these gymnasiarchoi is frequently recorded in inscriptions. The office seems to have been held by the most distinguished citizens. The general direction of education was in the hands of four Paidonomoi.
- 26. Fig. 189. Planof gymnasia at Pergamum. (Simplified from Ath. Mitth.)
- 27. The general arrangementof the buildings will be sufficiently clear from the accompanying plan (Fig. 189). The lowest terrace, which was the gymnasium of the boys, consists of a narrow triangle, about 80 metres long and 25 broad at its widest point, divided into two parts by a wall. Its northern side is formed by the retaining wall of the middle terrace, the buttresses of which form niches containing long stone bases on which were placed statues and stelai. One of these stelai contains a list of boys who have passed out into the ranks of the epheboi. The middle terrace forms the gymnasium of the latter. It measures 150 by 36 metres, and contains at its eastern end a small Corinthian temple, the walls of which seem to have been covered with lists of epheboi. The northern side is formed by a long double colonnade, and beyond it to the east a series of rooms, one of which is an exedra open to the front. This double colonnade, which is two metres above the level of the court, seems to have replaced an earlier single colonnade. The upper terrace is far the most extensive. It contains the gymnasium of the young men, and to the east the thermae or hot baths. This gymnasium is identified on account of its size with what is called in an inscription “The Panegyric Gymnasium,” where doubtless public festivals and competitions were held. It consisted of an open court 36 by 74 metres, surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade of the time of Hadrian, which replaced an earlier Doric building. In front of the pillars are bases on which statues were placed. Numerous rooms opened on to the colonnade, those on the north being especially spacious. One of these, a large hall with an apse at either end, is named by the excavators the Imperial Hall, on account of an inscription which it has on the architrave, “To the Emperors and the Fatherland.” The floor of the court is unpaved, but at the north-east corner is a small circular pavement which may mark the site of a washing-fountain. Along the south side of the gymnasium is a long corridor extending a considerable distance beyond the gymnasium on either side to a total length of 200 metres, which was obviously the xystos or running track, and behind this track are some thirty or more small rooms which may have
- 28. served as lodgingsfor competitors. These rooms must have been a late addition; for in the original building there ran underneath the half-open corridor a second vaulted corridor, the windows of which must have been blocked by the later buildings. This covered running track (crypto-porticus) seems originally to have looked out on a fourth terrace dividing the upper and middle terraces, the northern half of which was subsequently occupied by the foundations of the rooms described, while the southern half was dug away so as to form part of the new double colonnade of the middle terrace. From this date the vaulted corridor became useless for athletic purposes. The eastern half of the terrace is occupied by the thermae, with the details of which we are not concerned. Pending the final publication of the results of the excavations, it is useless to try to determine the uses of the various buildings. Some of these are mentioned in inscriptions. Diodorus, the son of Heroidas,[841] a distinguished citizen who filled the office of gymnasiarchos about the year 127 B.C., restored the gymnasium of the young men, and repaired the covered colonnade, περίπατος, surrounding the court. Further, finding that the konisterion or dusting-room was quite unworthy of the gymnasium, he built another at his own expense with a marble exedra in front, and rebuilt in marble the cold bath adjoining it. Metrodorus, whom we have already mentioned, placed several public basins (ληνοί) in the bathroom and improved the water-supply. He placed in the sphairisterion two public basins described as λουτῆρας, which seem to have been used to hold oil, and he also made suitable provision for the safe keeping of clothes. In recognition of these gifts his statue was erected in the paradromis of the gymnasium. Athletics being an essential part of Greek education, the gymnasia were naturally under the control of the various magistrates charged with the education and discipline of the young. The titles and functions of these magistrates and also of the officials who formed the staff of the gymnasia varied considerably at different times and places, and the differences between them are therefore very ill- defined. To discuss them fully is impossible within the limits of this
- 29. book, nor wouldit be profitable, most of the details which we know about them belonging to Hellenistic and Roman periods. I shall, therefore, confine myself to a brief general account of the most important of these officials, referring the reader for fuller details to special works dealing with the subject. The gymnasiarchos[842] must have been originally the magistrate in charge of the gymnasium, and it can only be an accident that the earliest officials of this name whom we know of, the gymnasiarchoi of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries, had no such general control of the gymnasia and were little more than lampadarchoi, responsible for the training of teams for the various torch-races which were one of the favourite amusements of the Athenian populace. Perhaps the reason for this narrow use of the term was that from the time of Solon, the discipline and education of the young, and consequently the supervision of the gymnasia, was in the hands of a board of ten called sophronistai, while at the close of the fourth century we find a single magistrate, the kosmetes, apparently taking over their functions and exercising supreme control over the epheboi. Hence there was at Athens no room for a special gymnasiarchos such as we find in many Greek states from the third century onwards, and such as must undoubtedly have existed at a much earlier date, if we may trust the obvious meaning of the title. The gymnasiarchia at Athens was one of the regular leitourgiai or public services exacted from rich citizens for the benefit of the sovereign people. The duty of the gymnasiarchos in early days was to train a team of youths or of boys, or sometimes two teams, for one of the many torch-races. These teams represented the different tribes, each one of which selected a certain number of names of rich tribesmen and submitted them to the King Archon to make the final choice. The selected gymnasiarchos had to collect and train a team, find their instructors, provide oil and torches, and pay for all other expenses. If his team was successful he dedicated a memorial of the victory to the gods, and in return for all his trouble his name figured alone or at the head of his epheboi in the official list of victors, and
- 30. in records ofthe victory. He doubtless exercised some authority over the epheboi in his tribe, or at least over those in his team, but had no general control over the public gymnasia. In Hellenistic and Roman times the gymnasiarchos appears as a sort of minister of education, maintaining discipline among the young, exercising control over the gymnasia, and generally providing out of his own pocket many of the expenses incurred. Sometimes the gymnasiarchia is still a voluntary service. Such was the case at Athens, and in many other states especially in Asia Minor under the Empire. Among the distinguished men who undertook this office we find Marcus Antonius at Athens and at Alexandria, Tiberius and Germanicus at Salamis in Cyprus, Titus at Naples, Hadrian at Eleusis, and, needless to say, Herodes Atticus at Athens. The office was usually held for a year, but was sometimes voluntarily renewed and even continued for life and handed down from father to son. We even hear of women serving as gymnasiarchoi. Generally in the last three centuries B.C. the gymnasiarchia is not a leitourgia but a public magistracy. The gymnasiarchos is appointed by the assembly and holds office for one year. At Ceos[843] he has to be over thirty years of age. An inscription from Phintia[844] tells us that he has charge of the epheboi, the neoteroi, and generally of those who use the gymnasia, and of all business connected with the gymnasia. He is assisted by subordinates, sometimes by a hypogymnasiarchos, sometimes by a paidonomos who looks after the younger boys, sometimes by other gymnasiarchoi responsible for youths of different ages. At Teos[845] he is charged with the appointment and payment of the hoplomachos and the instructor in the use of the bow and the javelin. He is responsible for the discipline of the young, checks rioting or disorder among them, supervises their education in literature as well as athletics, above all he personally superintends the military training of the epheboi, and organises competitions to test their efficiency, He maintains discipline sometimes with the rod, sometimes by means of fines.
- 31. Whether the gymnasiarchiawas a leitourgia or a public magistracy it involved considerable expense. The sums allotted by the state for the service of the gymnasia were often ludicrously inadequate, and the gymnasiarchos had usually to supplement them out of his own pocket; often indeed, disdaining to use the public money at all, he provided for all expenses himself. The chief expense was the provision of oil. Even in a small state like Iasos the supply of oil for a single gymnasium cost 450 denarii a month.[846] During the Empire the number of competitions, and consequently the expenses for oil and other purposes, were multiplied at an extraordinary rate. At Tauromenium the number of competitions rose from twenty-four a year in A.D. 69 to eighty-one in A.D. 92.[847] Sacrifices, processions, feasts, prizes afforded ample scope to the liberality of the gymnasiarchos, which often took a more permanent form in costly repairs and additions to the buildings of the gymnasia and baths. The gymnasiarchoi described above must not be confused with the ephebic gymnasiarchoi at Athens, officers elected by the epheboi from their own ranks. The expenses of training were borne to a great extent by the epheboi themselves, and they seem, therefore, often to have elected as captains rich youths who were willing to provide wholly or in part for the public expenses, for any period from a month to a year. The actual teachers were the paidotribes and the gymnastes. The paidotribes, as his name denotes, was properly the teacher of boys, who trained their bodies as the schoolmaster did their minds; the gymnastes was the trainer of athletes for athletic competitions. This is the original distinction between the two, and though in practice their functions often overlapped, and though in Plato the terms are practically synonymous, the original distinction never entirely disappeared. The paidotribes existed long before the gymnastes, for athletic exercises formed part of the national education long before the demand for specialised athletic training arose. From the time of Solon education was in the hands of the paidotribes and the
- 32. schoolmaster.[848] In most stateseducation was voluntary, and the paidotribai were usually private teachers, who received fees for their services. In the fourth century the fee seems to have been a mina (about £4) for the whole course.[849] Many of the paidotribai had palaestrae of their own; failing that, they must have taken their pupils to the public palaestrae and gymnasia, which they must in any case have used for such exercises as required more space than could be found in the ordinary palaestra.[850] Besides those private paidotribai who took pupils from the age of seven upwards, there were others who were paid by the state to superintend the training of the epheboi. At Teos the paidotribes received in the third century 500 drachmae a year.[851] The training of the epheboi was practical and military and had no connexion with professional athletics, and the paidotribes regularly figures in the ephebic inscriptions down to the latest times. Thus the paidotribes had charge of boys from their seventh to their twentieth year. But the training which he gave was not of course sufficient for those who aspired to win prizes in the great games. These required special natural abilities and special practice for the development of their natural abilities; and the special practice they required was supplied by the gymnastai.[852] There was, however, nothing to prevent a successful paidotribes if he possessed the necessary skill and knowledge employing them in training athletes. It was not every one who could afford the services of a champion boxer or wrestler. Further, the paidotribes might also devote himself to medical gymnastics.[853] Herodicus of Selymbria, the founder of medical gymnastics, is said to be have been a paidotribes who suffered from ill-health, and discovered from personal experience the means of treating disease by diet and exercise. Hence the paidotribes might be also a gymnastes. But such training and such knowledge were really outside his sphere, which was that of the drill sergeant, whose duty it is to teach certain definite movements and exercises to boys of various ages. As athletics became more and more professional, and medical gymnastics developed, the difference between the paidotribes and the gymnastes increased, till in Galen
- 33. and Philostratus wefind the paidotribes subordinated to the gymnastes as the mere drill sergeant to the professor of physical culture. Galen compares them respectively to the cook and the physician.[854] The gymnastes can hardly have come into existence much before the beginning of the fifth century.[855] His work consisted partly in perfecting his pupils in some particular form of athletics, partly in developing their strength and training them into proper condition. The earlier gymnastai, such as those whom we read of in Pindar and Bacchylides, devoted themselves chiefly to practical instruction. They were often themselves successful athletes, especially boxers and wrestlers, who having retired from competition took to teaching, and were doubtless richly rewarded by their patrons. Such was Melesias the trainer of thirty victors in wrestling and the pankration;[856] Iccus of Tarentum, a winner in the pentathlon at Olympia in Ol. 76, the most celebrated trainer of his day; Dromeus of Stymphalus and Pythagoras of Samos, to whom were attributed the introduction of a meat diet. These trainers, like other teachers, went wherever they could find a market. Menander of Athens trained Pytheas of Aegina to victory.[857] We cannot for a moment suppose that men like these descended to the work of the ordinary paidotribes, though, as I have suggested, the reverse must often have been the case. It was an age of science, and in the hands of gymnastai and paidotribai there arose in the middle of the fifth century a new science of gymnastic which aimed not at the performance of particular exercises but at the production of certain physical conditions (ἕξις),[858] especially the condition required for athletic success. Its professors in the fourth century are in ordinary speech called paidotribai, and Isocrates[859] describes it as a branch of the art of the paidotribes, undoubtedly because so many paidotribai professed it. The new science was closely allied to medicine. The trainer, like the doctor, required some knowledge of diet and the effects on the body of different kinds of food;[860] he required, too, some knowledge of the body itself, and the effect on it of various exercises; he required, too, to be a judge of the human animal, and to be able to tell in what form of athletics
- 34. any individual hadmost chance of excelling, and what particular form of training he required.[861] The ideal gymnastes, according to Aristotle,[862] should know what is the ideally best condition for the ideally best man, what is the best for the average man, and what is the best for any particular man. Unfortunately the art of the gymnastes was almost from the first connected with the training of professional athletes, and the condition which they aimed at was that artificial condition required for success in some particular form of athletics. At the same time medical gymnastics was corrupted by the quackery which from the fourth century was rampant in all departments of knowledge.[863] There were also other officials connected with the gymnasia. The xystarches was the president of one of those guilds of professional athletes which we find under the Empire. The aleiptes was properly the person who oiled and rubbed people who exercised in the gymnasia. This was part of the work of the paidotribes or the gymnastes, and it is doubtful whether there were special officials for the purpose. In Aristotle aleiptes is merely another name for gymnastes.[864] In Roman times we find slaves (unctores) performing this work in the public baths, and possibly these existed in the Greek gymnasia. Subordinate officials are also mentioned, the hypopaidotribes or assistant, and others who had charge of the palaestra and its contents, variously described as palaistrophylax, epimeletes, epistates. Besides these there were in Hellenistic times special instructors for special exercises, the sphairistes who taught ball-play, the akontistes and toxotes who gave instruction in the use of the javelin and the bow, and the hoplomachos who gave lessons in the use of arms. Of the special training prescribed for athletes little is known beyond a few details as to diet which have been noticed in the earlier chapters of this book, and a few other details noticed under the special exercises with which they are connected. There were manuals of athletic training, but all are lost except the late treatise by Philostratus to which we have so often referred. With regard to athletics as a branch of education we are somewhat better informed,
- 35. and it isinstructive to compare the physical training given in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. with the system described by Galen in the second century A.D. The training given in the earlier period was based on those athletic exercises which at all times formed the programme of Greek athletic meetings. To these we may add ball-play, which is enumerated by Plautus among the exercises which formed a young Greek’s training till the age of twenty.[865] These exercises were taught progressively, at first the simple movements or positions (σχήματα) separately, then combinations of these movements which involved more exertion.[866] Many of these movements admitted of being taught to classes as drill to the accompaniment of music. Such drill, especially with halteres, is sometimes represented on vases.[867] The various holds and throws of wrestling were taught in this way, and we possess on the Oxyrhynchus papyrus, to which we have already referred, a portion of such a wrestling lesson.[868] Dances could be utilised in the same way: the movements of wrestling were imitated in a dance performed by Spartan boys called the gymnopaidike[869] just as the movements of war were imitated in the Pyrrhic and other war dances. In the fourth century particular attention was given to exercises of a military character, the use of weapons of all sorts, and riding, but these exercises must have been confined chiefly to older pupils of the age of the epheboi. Proficiency in all the various exercises taught was encouraged by numerous festivals and local competitions where prizes were offered for boys of various ages. The training of teams for the torch-races and choirs for dancing competitions, though not formally a part of the education given by the paidotribes, must have afforded those who took part in them a considerable amount of healthy and agreeable exercise. Life in this period was spent mostly in the open air, and the formal training of the palaestra was supplemented by hunting, swimming, rowing, and other forms of exercise. Cities in Greece were small, and hunting was as a rule easily obtainable. In Attica, owing to the increase of population and the spread of cultivation, game was scarce, and sport had therefore declined in Xenophon’s time; but the
- 36. red-figured vases proveits popularity in the fifth century. Swimming and diving were common recreations. Every Greek could swim, and not to know how to swim was as much a sign of an uneducated person as ignorance of letters.[870] Rowing must also have been a universal accomplishment, at least among the Greeks who lived near the sea; but we know nothing of the teaching of rowing or swimming. Probably the Greek boy taught himself to swim and row or picked it up from his fellows. Here too the element of competition came in. At Hermione we hear of a competition in diving (or perhaps swimming[871] ), and also boat- races.[872] We have seen that boat-racing took place at the Isthmia and at various Athenian festivals. There was also a boat-race at the Actian festival in the time of Augustus; and Professor Percy Gardner has shown that there is a possible reference to this contest on the coins of Corcyra and Nicopolis, on which a victorious galley is sometimes represented. The coins suggest a race between galleys such as that described in the Aeneid, but the boats used in the Athenian races were probably not triremes, but small boats with a single bank of oars, tender-boats (ὑπηρετικά) such as always accompanied a fleet. A boat of this description is depicted on a stele in the Museum of Athens of Hellenistic or Roman period (Fig. 190). It is a long narrow boat with a pointed beak in front, and a curved aplustre at the stern, and in it there sit eight oarsmen. There is no sign of the oars. The men are naked and are sitting at ease, and bow, who is the smallest of the crew, holds a palm-branch. The number eight is of course a pure accident. There is no cox in the boat, but on the upper part of the stele are three figures standing, a draped figure in the centre, probably the gymnasiarchos who fitted out and trained the crew, on his left a naked youth bearing a palm, on his right a youth in a chlamys crowning the man in the centre. These two Professor Gardner identifies with the stroke and cox of the victorious crew.
- 37. Fig. 190. Stelerepresenting victorious crew. Athens. (Hellenistic period?) When we come to Galen, we seem to pass from the free and open atmosphere of the playing-field and the country into the artificial air of the town gymnasium. The simple exercises of the earlier period, so inseparably bound up with the lives and habits of the people, have given place to a scientific system of physical training based on the teaching of generations of gymnastai. In his treatise on Health[873] he describes at length the exercises suited for youths between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. He distinguishes exercises for the legs, the arms, and the trunk. He further classifies exercises into those which exert the muscles and give them tone without violent movement (τὰ εὔτονα), quick movements which promote activity (τὰ τάχεα), and violent exercises (τὰ σφόδρα). As examples of the first class he mentions digging, driving, carrying heavy weights, rope-climbing, and exercises of resistance such as holding the arms extended while another person tries to pull them down. Among quick exercises he enumerates running, sparring, the use of the korykos or punch-ball, ball-play, rolling on the ground “either alone or with others,” an exercise which seems to resemble “tackling” at football, and a variety of leg and arm movements. Many of these movements are well known in our modern physical drill.
- 38. That known asἐκπλεθρίζειν is the familiar running figure in which the runner runs in an ever-decreasing circle till he comes to the centre. Another exercise (πιτυλίζειν) consisted in marching on the toes, and at the same time swinging the arms. The leg exercises include jumping up and down, and raising the legs alternately backwards and forwards. The arm exercises are the usual dumb-bell movements performed rapidly without dumb-bells, with the hands either open or clenched. Finally, any of the exercises of the first class may become violent if practised rapidly and without interruption, and quick exercises become so if practised with weights or in heavy armour. Besides prescribing exercises Galen lays down elaborate rules for the time of exercise, and for massage both before and after exercise. The actual teaching of these exercises must have been in the hands of paidotribai, but the direction of the training and the arrangement of the exercises is, according to Galen, the work of the gymnastes, who alone has a scientific knowledge of physical training. The details of this training are full of interest to the student of education and hygiene. There is, indeed, little in our modern systems of physical education which he will not find anticipated in Greek medical writings. We do not know how far Galen’s principles were ever carried into practice, though we may suspect that it was only in the case of individuals, and that they had little influence on the nation. But of this we may be certain, that physical training did not, and could not, do for Galen’s contemporaries what athletics had done for their ancestors. Nor can physical training ever take the place of our own games. For it lacks the element of competition and cannot inspire. There is no antagonism between the two. Both are valuable, but their spheres are different. Physical training is a branch of education—a most important branch, and one hitherto shamefully neglected in England—and it must therefore be carried out under discipline: it is a matter of compulsion. Athletics and games are, or ought to be, a matter of free choice, and compulsion tends to kill the spirit of joy which is their essence. Physical training develops the body and imparts habits of discipline, but it cannot impart those still
- 39. higher qualities, courage,endurance, self-control, courtesy, qualities which are developed by our own games, or by such manly sports as boxing and wrestling when conducted in the true spirit of friendly rivalry: it cannot teach boys “to play the game” in the battle of life; it could never have inspired the poetry of Pindar, or the art of Myron.
- 40. BIBLIOGRAPHY N.B.—No references aregiven to articles or sections on athletics or athletic festivals in the following books of reference:— Baumeister, A. Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums. Daremberg et Saglio. Dictionnaire des antiquités. Frazer, J. G. Pausanias. Iwan von Müller. Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. Pauly-Wissowa. Real-Encyclopädie. Schreiber-Anderson. Atlas of Classical Antiquities. Smith, W. Dictionary of Antiquities. etc. etc. A. ATHLETIC FESTIVALS 1. Olympia.—(a) General Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich veranstalteten Ausgrabung. Edd. E. Curtius and F. Adler. Berlin, 1892-1897. Bötticher, A. Olympia: das Fest und seine Stätte. 2nd edition. Berlin, 1866.
- 41. Flash, A. Olympia,in Baumeister’s Denkmäler, ii. p. 1053. Munich and Leipsic, 1887. Gardner, P. Olympia, in New Chapters in Greek History. London, 1892. On the Ancient Olympic Games, in the Official Handbook of the Olympic Games. London, 1908. Hachtmann, K. Olympia u. seine Festspiele. Gütersloh, 1899. Krause, J. H. Olympia. Vienna, 1838. S. P. Lambros and N. G. Politis. Οἱ Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες. Athens, 1896. Leonardos, B. Ὀλυμπία. Athens, 1901. West, G. A Dissertation on the Olympick Games, in his translation of The Odes of Pindar. London, 1753. (b) Chronology and Lists of Victors S. Julii Africani Ὀλυμπιάδων ἀναγραφή (Eusebii Chronic. (Schoene), i. 193) rec. J. Rutgers. Leyden, 1862. Diehl, C. Olympische Sieger. Hermes, xxxvi. p. 71. Förster, H. Sieger in den olympischen Spielen. 2 parts. Zwickau, 1891, 1892. Guttmann, W. De Olympionicis apud Minae Philostratum. Breslau, 1865. Hyde, W. De Olympionicarum statuis a Pausania commemoratis. Halle, 1903. Körte, A. Die Entstehung der Olympionikenliste. Hermes, xxxix. p. 224. Mahaffy, J. P. On the Authenticity of the Olympic Register. J.H.S. ii. 164. Robert, C. Die Ordnung der olympischen Spiele und die Sieger der 75-83 Olympiade. Hermes, xxxv., 1900. p. 141.
- 42. (c) Miscellaneous Dissen, L.De ordine certaminum Olympicorum. Göttingen, 1841. Dörfeld, W. Alter des Heiligtums von Olympia. Ath. Mitth. xxxi. p. 205. Tiryns, Olympia, Pylos. Ib. xxxii. p. 1. Pisa bei Olympia. Ib. xxxiii. p. 318. Olympia in prähistorischer Zeit. Ib. p. 185. Dyer, L. Olympian Treasuries and Treasuries in General. J.H.S. xxv. p. 294. Details of Olympian Treasuries. Ib. xxvi. p. 46. The Olympian Theatron and the Battle of Olympia. Ib. xxviii. p. 250. The Olympian Council-House and Council. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, xix. p. 1. Förster, H. De Hellanodicis Olympicis. Leipsic, 1879. Hermann, G. De Hippodromo Olympico. Leipsic, 1839. Holwerda, J. Olympische Studien. Arch. Zeit., 1880, pp. 169-172. (1) Die Folgenreihe der Festspiele. (2) Ἔφεδρος and ἐφεδρεία. Mie, F. Quaestiones agonisticae, imprimis ad Olympia pertinentes. Rostock, 1888. Mommsen, A. Über die Zeit der Olympien. Leipsic, 1891. Puchstein, O. Altar des olympischen Zeus. Jahrb., 1896, p. 53. Robert, C. Sosipolis in Olympia. Ath. Mitth., xviii. p. 37. Scherer, C. De Olympionicarum statuis. Göttingen, 1885. Schöne, H. Neue Angaben über den Hippodrom zu Olympia. Jahrb., 1897, p. 150. Weniger, L. Das Hoch Fest des Zeus in Olympia. Klio, 1904, p. 125; 1905, pp. 1, 184. Olympische Forschungen. Ib., 1906, pp. 1, 259; 1907, p. 145; 1909, p. 291. Wernicke, K. Olympische Beiträge. Jahrb., 1894, pp. 88, 127, 191; 1897, p. 169. (1) Altäre, (2) Heraion, (3) Proedria u. Hellanodikeon, (4) Gymnasien, (5) Hippodrom, (6) Ostgiebel des Zeustempels.
- 43. II. The PanhellenicFestivals Corsini, E. Dissertationes IV. agonisticae quibus Olympiorum, Pythiorum, Nemeorum atque Isthmiorum tempus inquiritur ac demonstratur. Florence, 1747. Krause, J. H. Die Pythien, Nemeen und Isthmien. Leipsic, 1841. Homolle, T. Les Fouilles de Delphes. Paris, in progress. Droysen, J. G. Die Festzeit der Nemeen. Hermes, xiv., 1879, p. 1. Bury, J. B. Pindar. Nemean Odes. (Vide Appendix.) London, 1890. Jebb, Sir Richard C. Bacchylides. (Vide Introduction.) Cambridge, 1905. Monceaux, P. Fouilles et recherches archéologiques au sanctuaire des jeux isthmiques. Gazette archéologique, 1884, ix. pp. 273-285, 352- 365; 1885, x. pp. 205-214, 402-412. Pomtow. Studien zu den Weihgeschenken und der Topographie von Delphi. Ath. Mitth. xxxi. p. 437. Unger, G. T. Die Zeit der nemeischen Spiele. Philologus, xxxiv., 1874, pp. 50-64. Die Winter Nemeen. Ib. xxxvii., 1877, pp. 524-566. Die Isthmien und Hyacinthien. Ib. xxxvii., 1877, p. 1. Villoison. Recherches historiques sur les jeux néméens. (Hist. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres, xxxviii. p. 29.) III. The Panathenaea Böckh, A. De ludis Panathenaicis. Berlin, 1832. Michaelis, A. Der Parthenon. Leipsic, 1871. Mommsen, A. Feste der Stadt Athen. Leipsic, 1898. Smith, A. H. Sculptures of the Parthenon (Part of British Museum Catalogue of Sculpture).
- 44. B. GREEK ATHLETICS (a)General Krause, J. H. Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen. Leipsic, 1841. Fabri, P. Agonisticon. Lugduni, 1592. Grasberger, L. Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum. Würzburg, 1864. Jaeger, O. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen. Stuttgart, 1878. Mercurialis. De arte gymnastica. Venetiis, 1573. Meursii, J. De ludis Graecorum. Elzevir, 1662. Paciaudi, P. M. De athletarum κυβιστήσει in palaestra Graecorum. Rome, 1756. Philostratus. For full Bibliography of the Gymnastike, vide Jüthner’s edition, p. 84. Daremberg, Ch. Philostrate. Traité sur la gynmastique. Paris, 1858. Kayser, G. L. Philostratei libri de Gymnastica quae supersunt. Heidelberg, 1840. Flavii Philostrati opera. Leipsic, 1870. Jüthner, Julius. Philostratos über Gymnastik. Leipsic and Berlin, 1909. (b) Special Burette, M. In Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles- Lettres, 1736. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la sphéristique ou de la paume des anciens, i. p. 153. Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des athlètes, i. pp. 211, 237, 258. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la lutte des anciens, iii. p. 228. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire du pugilat des anciens, iii. p. 255. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la
- 45. course, iii. p.280. Dissertation sur ce qu’on appelle pentathle, iii. p. 318. Dissertation sur l’exercice du disque ou palet, iii. p. 330. Gardiner, E. N. The Method of deciding the Pentathlon. J.H.S. xxiii. p. 54. Notes on the Greek Foot-race. Ib. xxiii. p. 261. Phayllus and his Record Jump. Ib. xxiv. p. 70. Further Notes on the Greek Jump. Ib. xxiv. p. 179. Wrestling, I., II. Ib. xxv. pp. 14, 263. The Pankration and Wrestling. Ib. xxvi. p. 4. Throwing the Diskos. Ib. xxvii. p. 1. Throwing the Javelin. Ib. xxvii. p. 249. Jüthner, Julius. Antike Turngeräthe. (Halteres, Diskos, Akontion, Himantes.) Vienna, 1896. Also in Pauly-Wissowa, passim. Boxing Fabretti. Columna Trajani, p. 260. Rome, 1683. Frost, K. T. Greek Boxing. J.H.S. xxvi. p. 213. Hülsen. Il Cesto dei pugili antiqui. Röm. Mitth. iv. 175. The Diskos Chryssaphis, J. E. Ἡ Ἐλληνικὴ δισκοβολία in “Bulletin du comité des jeux olympiques,” No. 3, p. 59. Athens, 1906. Kietz, G. Der Diskoswurf bei der Griechen. Agonistische Studien, i. Munich, 1892. Pernice, E. Zum Diskoswurf. Jahrb., 1908, p. 95. E. R. The Diskos Thrower. Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1908, iii. 2, p. 31. Robertson, G. S. On Throwing the Discus, in the “Official Handbook of the Olympic Games.” London, 1908.
- 46. Six. Vases polychromessur fond noir. Appendice au sujet du discobole. Gaz. Arch., 1888, 291. The Hippodrome, etc. Helbig, W. Les Hippeis athéniens. Paris, 1902. Martin, A. Les Cavaliers athéniens. Paris, 1886. Also in Dar.-Sagl., s.v. Hippodrome. Pollack, E. Hippodromica. Leipsic, 1890. The Javelin and the Amentum Bertrand, A. L’Amentum et la cateia sur line plaque de ceinture en bronze. Revue arch., 1884, 104 f. Köchly. Opuscula, ii. 351 ff. Krause, F. Schleudervorrichtungen für Wurfwaffen. Internationales Archiv. Leyden, 1902, pp. 121 ff. Mérimée, P. Revue arch., 1860, 2nd Ed., 210 f. The Jump Küppers. Arch. Anz., 1900, 104 ff. Pinder, E. Arch. Anz., 1864, 230 f. Roulez, M. Mémoire sur une coupe de Vulci. Brussels, 1842. The Race in Armour
- 47. Hauser. Zur TübingerBronze, i., ii. Jahrb. 2, 1887, p. 95; 1895, p. 182. De Ridder, A. L’Hoplitodrome de Tübingen. B.C.H., 1897, p. 211. Wrestling Groups Förster. Jahrb., 1898, p. 178; 1901, pp. 49-51. Perclüzet. Rev. arch., 1903, sér. 1, pp. 396-397. The Pentathlon Blümner. In Baumeister’s Denkmäler, i. p. 1592. Böckh, A. Adnotationes criticae, in his edition of Pindar, 1811. Über die kritische Behandlung der pindarischen Gedichte. Abhandlungen d. Berl. Akad., 1822-1823, p. 391. Faber, Martin. Zum Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Philologus, 1891 (L), p. 469. Fedde, F. Der Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Breslau, 1888. Über den Fünfkampf d. Hell. Leipsic, 1889. Fennell, C. A. M. The Pentathlon, in his edition of Pindar’s Nemean and Isthmian Odes. Cambridge Press, 1883. Gardner, P. The Pentathlon. J.H.S. i. p. 210. Haggenmüller. Die Aufeinanderfolge der Kämpfe im Pentathlon. Berlin, 1892. Heinrich, K. E. Über das Pentathlon der Griechen. Würzburg, 1892. Hermann, G. Commentationes de metris Pindari. Ed. Heyne, iii. 225. De Sogenis Aeginetae victoria quinquertii. Lips., 1822. Holwerda. Zum Pentathlon. Arch. Zeit., 1881, pp. 205-216.
- 48. Legrand, Ph. E.In Dar.-Sagl., s.v. Quinquertium. 1907. Marquardt, H. Zum Pentathlon der Griechen. Güstrow, 1886. Myers, E. The Pentathlon. J.H.S. ii. p. 217. Philipp, G. F. De Pentathlo. Berlin, 1827. Pinder, E. Über den Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Berlin, 1867. (c) Miscellaneous Basiades, C. De vet. Graecorum gymnastice. Berlin, 1858. Becker, W. A. Charikles. Leipsic, 1840. Bintz, J. Die Gymnastike d. Hellenen. Gütersloh, 1878. Egger, J. B. Begriff der Gymnastik bei den alten Philosophen und Medizinern. Freiburg (Switz.), 1903. Freeman, K. J. Schools of Hellas. Macmillan Co., 1907. Gardner, P. Boat-races among the Greeks. J.H.S., ii. p. 90. Boat-races at Athens. Ib. p. 315. A Stele commemorating a Victory in a Boat- race. Ib. xi. p. 146. Girard, P. L’Éducation athénienne. Paris, 1889. Gutch, C. The Greek Games. Cambridge, 1900. Joubert, L. De gymnasiis et generibus exercitationum apud antiquos. Sallengre Thes., i. Jüthner, J. Gymnastisches in Philostrat’s Eikones. Eranos Vindob. p. 310. Vienna, 1893. Lindemann, F. De utilitate artis gymnasticae apud Graecos. Zitt., 1841. Mie, F. Über die διὰ πάντων καὶ ὁ ἐπινίκιος in agonistischen Inschriften. Ath. Mitth. xxxiv. p. 1. Petersen, Chr. Das Gymnasium der Griechen. Hamburg, 1858.
- 49. Polke. Artis gymnasticaeapud Graecos origo atque indoles. Gleiw., 1851. Richter, W. Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer. Leipsic, 1840. Stallbaum, G. De vet. gymnasiorum disciplina et institutione. Leipsic, 1856, 1858. Tarbell, F. B. The Palm of Victory. Classical Philology, iii. p. 264. Wilkins, A. S. Roman Education. Cambridge Press, 1905. P. Wolters. Zu griechischen Agonen. Würzburg, 1901. C. ATHLETIC ART N.B.—The following section lays no claim to completeness. The references are as a rule too scattered and fragmentary to be included in a bibliography. Much information will be found in all histories and handbooks of athletic art. Coins (for equestrian types) Hill, G. F. Historical Greek Coins. London, 1906. Evans, A. The Horsemen of Tarentum. London, 1889. Mosaics Lucas, Hans. Athleten-Typen. Jahrb. xix., 1904, pp. 127-136. Secchi, P. Musaico antoniniano. Sculpture
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