Activ Slag - Ieaust transactions

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© Institution of Engineers, Australia 2002 Australian Civil Engineering Transactions, Vol. CE44
Development of Novel Alkali Activated Slag Binders
to Achieve High Early Strength Concrete
for Construction Use
Frank Collins
Associate Director
Maunsell Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Jay Sanjayan
Senior Engineer
Maunsell Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne
SUMMARY: Slag blended cements have little application to high early strength construction
due to its lower early strength than OPC. Nevertheless, slag blended cements offer good durabil-
ity and lower heat of hydration than Portland cements. Alkali activated slag (AAS) is a cementitious
binder consisting of ground granulated iron blast furnace slag (slag) and an alkali activator. This
paper describes some of the results of a recent project conducted at Monash University on high
early strength AAS concrete (AASC) that is applicable to construction. AAS can be manufac-
tured using Australian slag.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of alkali activated slag (AAS)
Alkali activated slag (AAS) is a cementitious binder
consisting of ground granulated iron blast furnace
slag (slag) and an alkali activator. The binder is
different to slag blended cement in that the binder
consists 100% of slag plus an alkali activator, whereas
slag blended cement including a significant
proportion of Portland cement (OPC) as the activator.
1.2 Environmental significance
Molten slag floats to the top of blast furnaces during
the production of iron from iron ore. The slag is
drawn off and, if quenched rapidly with water,
becomes glassy. When dried and ground, the slag
becomes cementitious in an alkali medium. At
present, slag and portland cement are blended either
by intergrinding or by blending separately to form a
blended cement (Type GB). This has a number of
benefits, namely lower cost, lower heat of hydration,
improved durability, and reduced slump loss.
The environmental benefits of utilising blended
cements are considerable; the construction industry
not only makes use of a by-product from steel making
but helps in reducing the emissions arising from the
burning of fossil fuels during cement
manufacture.1,2,3,4
There are limited natural resources
for ordinary portland cement manufacture; a further
benefit is the conservation of materials such as
limestone, coal, and natural gas for future
generations.4,5
The cement industry has made
considerable progress in this area and the Cement
Industry Federation finalised a commitment with the
Federal Government to reduce greenhouse
emissions.6
The use of supplementary cementitious
materials such as ground granulated blast furnace
slag has played a key role in the cement industry
reducing emissions.7
1.3 Prior investigations
The majority of the investigations conducted to date
have concentrated on either low early strength
applications or the chemistry of AAS. Examples
include the following:
i. Waste encapsulation/treatment;8,9
ii. Nuclear encapsulation/treatment;10,11,12,13,14,15,16
iii. Geotechnical/sealing/grouting applica-
tions;17,18,19,20,21
iv. Low early strength applications;22,23,24,25,26
v. Cement chemistry studies without investigation
of the engineering requirements for construc-
tion;15,16,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43
vi. Durability investigations;44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55
vii. Activation of synthetic slag.56,57

92
Australian Civil Engineering Transactions Vol. CE44, 2002
Development of novel alkali activated slag binders ... - Collins & Sanjayan
The majority of the above investigations have there-
fore, focussed on:
(a) Civil or specialist applications unrelated to struc-
tural concrete;
(b) Cement chemistry investigations that do neces-
sarily not translate to the practicalities of a con-
struction application. For example, Wang58
measured one day compressive strength be-
tween 20 to 59.5 MPa with AAS mortars. How-
ever, the same AAS had a time to initial set of 8
to 33 minutes which would preclude construc-
tion use except in specialist rapid setting appli-
cations.
Past investigations conducted on high early strength
AAS have involved:
• Use of alkaline liquid activators. The storage and
dispensing of bulk alkaline activators would
pose an occupational health and safety concern
during the manufacture of concrete. This
method necessitates separate batching of com-
ponents which could lead to errors; packaging
of dry blendedAAS would minimise the chance
of error;
• AAS that has been made in the laboratory.
Whether the binder can be used to make con-
crete in a commercial concrete plant has not been
documented;
• Loss of significant workability from the time of
mixing, which precludes general construction
use;
• Elevated temperature and steam curing to
achieve high early strength. This necessitates
specialist equipment and full-time attendance
by staff that precludes many precast concrete
applications;
• Grinding slag to high fineness;
• Laboratory-size samples. Whether these prop-
erties translate to the in-situ properties of a larger
structural member has not been documented.
1.4 Early strength of slag blended cement
Attempts to use slag in Australia as blended with
Portland cement go as far back as when Portland
cement was first manufactured in Australia in 1882.
However, it was met with much resistance as
evidenced by a statement in a technical paper by a
prominent engineer at the time: “But the addition of
30% to 40% of blast furnace slag with cement clinker
as it goes to the crusher, is simply an unscrupulous
method of increasing the profits of the manufacturer,
and is undoubtedly fraught with much danger to the
public”.59
Nevertheless, despite early reluctance, slag
blended cement, consisting of a blend of slag and
ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is commonly used
worldwide and offers good durability,60,61,62,63
and
lower heat of hydration than OPC.64,65
The latent hydraulicity of ground granulated iron
blast furnace slag leads to self-activation, however
only a small amount of reaction takes place when
slag is mixed with water.66,67,68,69
The reaction is
limited, until additional alkali is available. Use of
Portland cement as the activator produces inferior
early age strength to that of Portland cement.70,71,72,73,74
Potentially, AAS concrete (AASC) can yield high
early strength (a characteristic currently not achieved
by slag blended cements) while overcoming two
shortcomings of ordinary Portland cements; namely,
high heat of hydration and inferior durability.
Low strength AAS, consisting of 85% slag and 15%
hydrated lime, is used in Australia for stabilisation
in roadworks.75
The activation of Australian slag, to achieve high
early strength, without the need for elevated
temperature curing or high slag fineness, and for
more general structural applications, has not been
reported in the literature, until recently by Collins
and Sanjayan.76,77,78,79,80
2 INVESTIGATIONS ON AAS IN THIS
INVESTIGATION
2.1 Development of an activator
There is a wealth of knowledge in the published
literature on activator development for slag.
However, it was necessary to conduct a study on
activator development to meet the objectives of this
investigation for reasons described as follows.
The majority of past investigations conducted on
AAS have concentrated on either low early strength
applications, or civil or specialist applications
unrelated to structural concrete, or the chemistry of
AAS. The past investigations on high early strength
AAS have certain limitations:
i. Alkaline liquids were used as the activator. For
commercial manufacture of concrete, the han-
dling of bulk liquid alkaline poses an occupa-
tional health and safety risk. This method of ac-
tivation necessitates separate batching of com-
ponents which could lead to errors; packaging
of dry blendedAAS would minimise the chance
of error;
ii. Many investigations achieved high early
strength AAS using elevated temperature and
steam curing techniques. These methods require
specialist equipment and full-time attendance
by staff and has very little use in many precast
concrete applications where high early strength
concrete is commonly used;
iii. Some investigations achieved high early
strength AAS by grinding slag to high fineness.

93
It was considered too costly to grind the slag to
high fineness;
iv. All past investigations discussAAS that has been
made in the laboratory. Whether the binder can
be used to make concrete in a construction situ-
ation has not been documented. Whether the
properties of AAS laboratory concrete translate
to the in-situ properties of a larger structural
member has not been reported in the literature;
v. Past investigations measured significant loss of
workability of AASC from the time of mixing
which would preclude general construction use.
The project concentrated on the development of a
dry powdered activator (figure 1) that can be pre-
blended with slag prior to use for concrete making.
The early age strength development of alkali
activated slag pastes (AASP) and mortars (AASM)
was investigated on mini cylinders together with
paste workability by the mini-slump method (figures
2 and 3). Some of the results are shown in Collins
and Sanjayan.76
The key findings of the paste and
mortar investigation were as follows:
a) A multi-component activator based on pow-
dered sodium silicate is the most suitable acti-
vator based on one day strength and workabil-
ity;
b) AASP has better dispersion than OPCP and
shows minimal slump loss over two hours. The
favorable effect on one day strength of AASP
based on powdered sodium silicate is consider-
able. However, companion AASP based on liq-
uid sodium silicate shows considerable slump
loss over two hours;
c) Slag fineness of 460 m2
/kg provides adequate
one day strength, workability, and economics of
grinding;
d) Partial replacement of slag with ultra-fine slag
or ultra-fine flyash improves workability,
whereas condensed silica fume significantly re-
duces workability.
Figure 1: Ground granulated blast furnace slag and powdered sodium silicate activator
2.2 Fresh and mechanical properties of alkali
activated slag concrete (AASC)
The literature regarding high early strength AASC
mostly discusses use of liquid alkali activators.AASC
was made with liquid alkali activators, as cited in
the literature, namely NaOH (added with the mix-
ing water) plus Na2CO3 (pre-blended with slag), and
liquid sodium silicate which were both added with
the mixing water. Both concrete mixture types
showed rapid loss of workability with time in this
investigation.
Satisfactory concrete mixtures, utilising blends of slag
and dry powdered sodium silicate and hydrated lime
as the slag activator were made. For w/b 0.5, the ini-
tial slump of AASC was 51% higher than OPCC and
slump loss over two hours was minimal compared
with OPCC, which lost 75% of its initial slump.77
The
one day strength of AASC was almost identical to
OPCC. Up to 25 MPa one day strength was achiev-
able for AASC at lower w/b. More detailed results
are provided in Collins and Sanjayan.77,78,79
AASC made with pre-blended slag and powdered
sodium silicate activator, when stored in dry sealed
conditions up to one year, showed superior work-
ability and almost identical one day strength to fresh
blended material.

94
19 mm
57 mm
38 mm
Tapered
conical
internal
section
Top flange
Lifting lug
51mm f Brass rod
Figure 2: Set-up for mini-slump test
Figure 3: Variation of mini-slump base area with
w/b for OPC paste
2.3 Investigation of shrinkage
Drying shrinkage of AASC is greater than OPCC
following testing up to 365 days. The effect of seven
days initial bath curing of AASC has little influence
on the overall magnitude of drying shrinkage at 365
days.
The water mass lost during drying is less for AASC
than OPCC, yet the magnitude of shrinkage strain is
considerably greater. Investigation of the pore size
distribution shows up to 82% pores in the mesopore
range for AASP compared with 36% for OPCP.
Analysis of mass loss data indicates that drying of
water from mesopores occurs with AASP compared
with OPCP, which shows no loss of moisture from
the mesopores. This is a likely reason for higher
drying shrinkage of AASP, however the calcium
silicate hydrate gel characteristics, which could also
contribute to shrinkage, were not investigated.
Futher details are provided in Collins and Sanjayan.33
Examination of the effect of gypsum content on
drying shrinkage and compressive strength ofAASC
showed 2% SO3 to be the optimum gypsum content.
Up to 54% reduction in the magnitude of 56 day
drying shrinkage was achieved by incorporation of
a glycol-based shrinkage reducing chemical
admixture, commonly known as Eclipse
TM
, into
AASC. However, the compressive strength ofAASC
containing Eclipse
TM
was reduced at all ages.
Replacement of normal weight coarse aggregate with
saturated porous air-cooled blast furnace slag
aggregate into AASC achieved 38% less drying
shrinkage at 365 days. This is most likely due to the
“internal curing” effect whereby saturated BFS
aggregate releases moisture into the cementitious
paste during drying.
2.4 Investigation of restrained shrinkage
Restrained ring tests were initially conducted to
determine cracking tendency. The test results showed
considerable variability within a data set of three
samples. Further, the time for several restrained rings
to crack is considered too lengthy (in some cases, up
to 160 days). The literature quotes examples of
samples that remained uncracked for the entire test
duration and ranking of cracking tendency of these
types of concrete is difficult. Therefore, a restrained
beam test was developed to promote cracking with
a shorter time frame and to initiate one central crack
thereby overcoming the tedious task of measurement
of crack dimensions of many cracks.
A restrained beam test has been developed which
has the advantage that the width of the beam is
identical to the prism width of unrestrained
shrinkage test specimens made to the Australian
Standard, AS 1012.13 (1992). The test therefore

95
translates well when comparing free and restrained
shrinkage. The test is based on earlier work
conducted by Roper.
81
Restraint is provided by two
PVC sheathed mild steel rods, which are embedded
into the beam longitudinally, and a coarse thread
provides end anchorage with nuts located at the ends
of the rods. Athin mild steel stress magnifier plate is
embedded at the centre of the beams. The test has
reasonable repeatability, as demonstrated by the
behaviour of twin and triplicate beams made on the
same and also separate days. Changing the size of
the embedded stress magnifier plate can modify the
amount of tensile stress developed at the centre of
the beam. The key outcomes from a total of 31 beam
tests are as follows:
i) Following demoulding at day one,AASC beams
with w/b 0.5 which were exposed to 50% RH
and 23oC, cracked within one day and grew to
0.97 mm at 175 days whereas OPCC beams
cracked within nine days and grew to a width
of 0.33 mm at 175 days;
ii) AASC beams with w/b 0.5 that were bath cured
in lime saturated water for 3 and 14 days prior
to exposure to 50% RH and 23oC cracked at 2
and 44 days respectively, however the magni-
tude of the crack width was considerably less
than AASC beams which had no curing. The
crack width was comparable to the OPCC re-
strained beams;
iii) Incorporation of shrinkage reducing chemical
admixture, EclipseTM, did not delay the time
to cracking of AASC exposed from Day one.
However, the crack width was considerably re-
duced but was slightly greater than OPCC. Al-
though AASC incorporating EclipseTM has
lower magnitude of drying shrinkage than
AASC, the compressive strength is inferior and
this may explain similar cracking tendency. Bath
curing of the beams significantly delayed the
onset of cracking;
Beams composed of AASC with BFS as the coarse
aggregate demonstrated the best cracking resistance
of all the restrained beams. A fine crack was
measured ten days from the time of exposure to 50%
RH and 23oC. The crack width growth was less than
OPCC beams that were exposed from Day one
onwards. Following the elapse of 175 days, the three
and seven day bath cured beams were uncracked.
The superior cracking tendency performance of
AASC containing BFS coarse aggregate could be due
to lower magnitude of drying shrinkage, superior
tensile strength and lower elastic modulus than
AASC made with normal weight coarse aggregate.
Further details of the testing programme are
provided in Collins and Sanjayan.34
2.5 Numerical modelling of restrained shrinkage
Finite element analysis of the stresses within the
beam showed the embedded plate magnifies the
stress at the centre of the beam, however the region
of stress disturbance extends only about 80 mm,
beyond which the stress distribution is essentially
uniform. The various parameters affecting cracking
tendency, including drying shrinkage, creep, elastic
modulus, and tensile strength were described by
developing best-fit functions to the test data.Astress
based model was utilised, with a numerical solution
obtained using a step by step method with small time
increments. In the case of OPCC, the numerical
model produced reasonable estimation of time to
cracking. The estimated time to cracking for AASC
was longer than the experimental observation,
however was considerably lower than OPCC to
enable reasonable ranking of the two binders. Further
details are provided in Collins and Sanjayan.35
2.6 Effect of curing on compressive strength
The compressive strength of bath cured AASC is
greater than OPCC at ages beyond one day. The
superior compressive strength ofAASC could be due
to negligible bleeding, thus leading to the formation
of fewer air voids adjacent to aggregate particles.
Further, the AASC binder has minimal amount of
Ca(OH)2 which can yield weak crystals of Ca(OH)2
with preferential orientation in the aggregate to
mortar transition zone.
Following exposed curing to 50% RH and 23o
C for 91
days, OPCC shows slight compressive strength
increase and 19.5% lower compressive strength than
companion bath cured cylinders with w/b 0.5. The
compressive strength of exposed AASC cylinders is
39% less than the bath cured companion cylinders at
91 days. At 365 days, AASC with w/b 0.5 shows
strength retrogression, with the 365 day strength
13.8% less than the 56 day strength following exposed
curing. Paste and concrete samples were tested by
mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIPS) to ascertain
the pore size distribution. The pore size distribution
of AASP under bath cured conditions is much finer
than OPCP and this has also contributed significantly
to the superior compressive strength of AASC. The
pore size distribution of exposed AAS is more porous
than bath and sealed samples, with the porosity
increasing with distance to the exterior of the sample.
Following exposed curing, AASC shows visible
microcracking on the surface. Water sorptivity testing
showed the samples to have high uptake of water
compared with bath and sealed cured companion
cylinders. The high uptake of water can be associated
with a continuous microcracking and capillary pore
network, which has lead to inferior compressive
strength. Further details of the testing programme
are provided in Collins and Sanjayan.34

96
AASC incorporating BFS as the coarse aggregate has
superior compressive strength toAASC with normal
weight (basalt) coarse aggregate following bath and
sealed curing. This could be due to the vesicular
nature of the BFS aggregate, which is more conducive
to superior aggregate to paste bonding to basalt
aggregate. Following exposed curing up to 365 days,
strength retrogression was not measured, as was the
case for AASC with normal weight aggregate. This
can be partly attributed to the release of water from
the saturated porous coarse aggregate thereby
causing ongoing hydration of the cementitious paste
adjacent to the aggregate. Furthermore, no visible
microcracking was evident on the surface of the
samples, most likely due to the lower stiffness of the
BFS coarse aggregate and also due to the lower
magnitude of drying shrinkage of AASC with BFS
coarse aggregate. The absence of microcracking,
which could assist crack propagation, would also
contribute to the superior compressive strength.
Measurement of finer pore size distribution verified
the improved hydration of the binder due to the
presence of BFS aggregate and this work will be
further outlined in a forthcoming paper.
2.7 Properties of AASC placed into a large column
The outcomes discussed above involve testing of
laboratory-size specimens and whether lack of curing
and strength retrogression of exposed cylinders
translates into a problem with larger scale concrete
members is unreported in the literature.
1000
5 0
150
120
5 0
200
26mm P.V.C.
covered with thin
polythene sheet
Anchor nuts
Threaded mild steel
rod. 25mm dia.2mm mild steel plate
Crack initiator
5 0
Cross section A - A
5 0
conduit
150
120
A
A
Unthreaded rod
7 5
7 5
150
Figure 4: Typical experimental set-up for restrained beam test
The peak in-situ temperature in the AASC column
was measured 16 hours after concrete placement.
This compares with identical columns made with
GB50/50 concrete and OPCC that reached peak
temperatures at 18 and 13.5 hours respectively.AASC
shows the lowest net maximum temperature rise and
rate of net temperature rise than OPCC and GB50/
50. The lower heat evolution of AASC may be due to
the slower rate of reaction due to slow dissolution of
the sodium silicate into the concrete mixing and also
due to the endothermic nature of the reaction that
occurs when sodium silicate is dissolved in water.
The one day strength of standard cylinders made
from the same column concrete was 16% greater than
AASC made in the laboratory. This may be due to
the longer mixing time of 30 minutes in the truck-
mounted drum mixer (that enabled greater
dissolution of activator) compared with the sequence
of two minutes mixing/two minutes rest/two
minutes mixing in the laboratory. The standard
cylinders made from the same concrete which were
exposed have 41.4% and 53.5% lower compressive
strength at 365 days than the companion sealed and
bath cured cylinders respectively. Between 28 and 365
AASC concrete was made at a commercial operating
concrete plant using a mobile mixer consisting of a
truck-mounted drum mixer. The concrete
workability improved from the time of concrete
making to the time of concrete placement (30
minutes). The concrete had minimal slump loss over
two hours.

97
Figure 5: Placement of AASC into the column
formwork
of strength retrogression under exposed conditions
is possible and attention to good curing is essential.
3 CONCLUSIONS
This paper has briefly covered several aspects of this
investigation on AAS. Further detail can be found in
the cited publications. The main conclusions of the
work conducted to date are:
i) High early strength concrete can be made by
activation of Australian slag;
ii) AASC possesses adequate workability and
workability retention suitable for practical con-
struction;
iii) Strength retrogression during drying of a period
of one year has been detected in AASC. The
strength retrogression is a result of surface
microcracking due to dry exposure conditions.
It has been shown not to be a problem in large
structural members with small exposed surface
to volume ratio;
iv) Shrinkage of AASC is significantly greater than
the OPCC control. The cracking tendency of
AASC is also higher than OPCC, although not
to the same extent as the magnitude of shrink-
age;
v) Significant improvement in shrinkage and crack-
ing tendency can be made in AASC by atten-
tion to good curing and also by replacing the
coarse aggregate by saturated porous air cooled
blast furnace slag aggregate;
vi) Comparisons of in-situ strength (from cores) in
large columns with strength of standard cured
cylinders show that both strengths are compa-
rable in 28 days, unlike the slag blended cements
(with OPC) which show significant in-situ
strength loss. However, beyond 28 days and up
to one year, the bath and sealed cured AASC
cylinders continue strength development at a
much higher rate than the in-situ concrete;
vii) Attention to good curing is essential when uti-
lising AASC.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support for this project was jointly
provided by Independent Cement and Lime Pty Ltd,
Blue Circle Southern Cement Ltd and Australian
Steel Mill Services. The authors thank the sponsors
especially Alan Dow, Tom Wauer, Paul Ratcliff,
Katherine Turner, and Dr. Ihor Hinczak for the
guidance and support. The efforts and assistance
with the laboratory work provided by Eric Tan, Soon
Keat Lim, Dennis Kueh, Lee Tuan Kuan, Jeff
Doddrell, Roger Doulis, and Peter Dunbar are also
gratefully acknowledged.
days the exposed cured cylinders show 17.2% strength
loss. The effect of microcracking was evident by
considerably more porosity that was measured by
mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIPS).
The strength of cores taken from the column showed
increasing compressive strength at all core locations
between 28 and 365 days. Despite biaxial drying at
the corner of the column, strength retrogression was
not evident in the cores, as was the case in the
exposed cylinders. There was a strength gradient
across the cross-section of the column and, following
elapse of 365 days; the strength of the cores located
at the corner was 10.7% less than cores located at the
centre of the column. The core strength of the AASC
column is superior to that of an identical GB50/50
column.82
Water sorptivity and MIPS testing of core
off-cut samples reflected the gradient across the
cross-section, with greater uptake of water and
coarser pore size distribution measured near the
column exterior. Nevertheless, the gradient was not
as pronounced as the difference between sealed and
exposed cylinders and it is proposed that the depth
of encroachment of microcracking influences a
relatively smaller proportion of the total cross-section
of the column compared with a standard cylinder.
Nevertheless, on structural members with small
cross-sectional area made withAASC, the possibility

98
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102
FRANK COLLINS
Frank Collins became involved with engineering materials 20 years ago when he
was working on chloride extraction with Associate Professor Harold Roper at the
University of Sydney. He stayed on to complete a Masters of Engineering and in-
vestigated repair materials. In those days, working under the stewardship of Harold
Roper, together with co-researchers Graham Kirkby and Dak Baweja, they became
known in the Department as “The Gang of Four”. After a sojourn travelling the vast
African continent, he commenced work with Taywood Engineering, UK, and sharp-
ened his “deteriology” skills under Dr Roger Brown. Frank held a variety of posi-
tions at Taywood’s Sydney, Hanoi, Hong Kong, and London offices before manag-
ing the Melbourne office. During this time Frank was actively involved with the
design for durability for new construction as well as the investigation and
remediation of many structures internationally. Frank was Lead Materials Engi-
neer in the Sydney Opera House rehabilitation programme, in 1988, which entailed
diagnosis of the substructure (marine) and roof shell elements and development of
remedial and preventative maintenance strategies; the work led to the extensive
works that were conducted in the 1990’s. In 1995, Frank was part of an ODAfunded
project in Vietnam to develop and train a team of engineering professionals to
become self-sufficient with assessment and rehabilitation of bridge stock. In 1999
he completed a PhD in Civil Engineering at Monash University, completing a re-
search project on alkali activated slag concrete that was completed in a record short
duration for the Department. The project won a Concrete Institute ofAustraliaAward
for Excellence. Frank is currently Associate Director at Maunsell Australia where
he leads the Advanced Materials Group. He is Responsible for Maunsell Austral-
ia’s consulting engineering activities, including evaluation of construction materi-
als for their intended use, inspection and testing services, maintenance manage-
ment, and repair/rehabilitation.
DR JAY G SANJAYAN
Dr Sanjayan works as a Senior Engineer in the Advanced Materials Group of
Maunsell Australia. He has recently been modelling service life of civil engineering
structures including several bridges and a major building in Sydney. He has been
previously working as a Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering at Monash Univer-
sity for 13 years and has extensive experience in sophisticated and complex analy-
sis of structures in a variety of environments. He has also wide ranging experience
in laboratory testing of structural elements and materials.
properties of alkali activated slag concrete con-
taining porous couarse aggregate. Cement and
Concrete Research, 1999;29(4):607-610.
34. Collins F, Sanjayan JG. Cracking tendency of al-
kali-activated slag concrete subjected to re-
strained shrinkage. Cement and Concrete Re-
search, 2000;30(5):791-798.
35. Collins F, Sanjayan JG. Numerical modeling of
alkali activated slag concrete beams subjected
to restrained shirnkage. ACI Materials Journal,
American Concrete Institute Sept-Oct
2000;97(5):594-602.
properties of alkali activated slag concrete
placed into a large column. Cement and Con-
crete Research, 1999;29(5):659-666.

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