Both ordinary least squares and censored regression statistical model for predicting baseball attendance at MLB games in the 2008-2012 are presented, building on prior work of Robert J. Lemke, Matthew Leonard, Kelebogile Tlhokwane, “Estimating Attendance at Major League Baseball Games for the 2007 Season”, Journal of Sports Economics, Vol.1(3), 316 (2010).
This study examines the impact of outcome uncertainty on attendance at Major League Soccer games. Previous research on other sports leagues has produced mixed results regarding the uncertainty-of-outcome hypothesis, which states that more uncertain outcomes will attract more spectators. The study uses regression analysis to test whether games between more competitively balanced teams or games with higher playoff implications draw larger crowds than other games, while controlling for factors like weather, rivalries, star players, and playoff uncertainty. This is the first study to analyze outcome uncertainty and attendance at MLS games. The results found no evidence that greater outcome uncertainty increases attendance at MLS matches.
El documento trata sobre conceptos relacionados con la calidad como control de calidad, garantía de calidad, gestión de calidad y sistemas de gestión de calidad. También aborda temas como la calidad de software, las normas ISO, SPICE y CMM para la evaluación y mejora de procesos relacionados con el desarrollo e implementación de software.
N.Produto-decreto nº 79.094 5_janeiro_1977-regulamenta a lei nº 6.360visa343302010
Este decreto regulamenta a Lei no 6.360 de 1976, que submete medicamentos, cosméticos e outros produtos à vigilância sanitária. Define termos técnicos relacionados a esses produtos e estabelece regras para a produção, comercialização e controle de qualidade desses itens, visando garantir a saúde pública.
Este documento presenta un análisis de la situación actual de la ciencia, tecnología e innovación en Venezuela. Resume la evolución histórica de la institucionalización de la actividad científica en el país desde los primeros años de la república hasta la actualidad, destacando hitos como la creación de facultades de ciencias en las universidades en los años 50 y 60. También analiza el contexto global y regional, así como el entorno económico y político nacional actual que enfrenta Venezuela.
El documento habla sobre Ecopetrol, la empresa petrolera más grande de Colombia. Explica el origen y características básicas de Ecopetrol, lo que hace la empresa como operadora petrolera, y brevemente sobre el gas natural. También menciona el marco estratégico, documentos legales, y reconocimientos recibidos por Ecopetrol.
Este documento discute as noções de texto e intertextualidade. Primeiramente, define texto como qualquer coisa capaz de gerar significado através da interação entre leitor e obra, em vez de ser limitado a um sistema semiótico específico. Segundo, critica a noção de signo como unidade básica de análise textual, argumentando que o signo é na verdade um texto truncado. Por fim, discute três premissas comuns na leitura de textos que limitam suas possibilidades de significado.
1º política social e desenvolvimento no brasil revista economia e sociedade...claudio alfonso
Este artigo discute as conexões entre política social e desenvolvimento no Brasil. Argumenta-se que o desenvolvimento abrange mais do que economia, incluindo elementos políticos, sociais e ambientais. A política social do Estado é fundamental para o desenvolvimento ao promover justiça social, crescimento econômico e distribuição de renda. O artigo analisa essas conexões por meio de variáveis quantificáveis para o caso brasileiro.
La Web 2.0 se caracteriza por facilitar el compartir información y la interacción entre usuarios a través de herramientas como blogs, wikis y redes sociales. La Web 3.0 busca que las máquinas puedan procesar la información de la web de una forma más eficiente a través de lenguajes semánticos y la inteligencia artificial para entender mejor a los usuarios. Algunas características propuestas incluyen transformar la web en una base de datos y aplicar tecnologías como la web semántica, geoespacial y 3D.
This study examines the impact of outcome uncertainty on attendance at Major League Soccer games. Previous research on other sports leagues has produced mixed results regarding the uncertainty-of-outcome hypothesis, which states that more uncertain outcomes will attract more spectators. The study uses regression analysis to test whether games between more competitively balanced teams or games with higher playoff implications draw larger crowds than other games, while controlling for factors like weather, rivalries, star players, and playoff uncertainty. This is the first study to analyze outcome uncertainty and attendance at MLS games. The results found no evidence that greater outcome uncertainty increases attendance at MLS matches.
El documento trata sobre conceptos relacionados con la calidad como control de calidad, garantía de calidad, gestión de calidad y sistemas de gestión de calidad. También aborda temas como la calidad de software, las normas ISO, SPICE y CMM para la evaluación y mejora de procesos relacionados con el desarrollo e implementación de software.
N.Produto-decreto nº 79.094 5_janeiro_1977-regulamenta a lei nº 6.360visa343302010
Este decreto regulamenta a Lei no 6.360 de 1976, que submete medicamentos, cosméticos e outros produtos à vigilância sanitária. Define termos técnicos relacionados a esses produtos e estabelece regras para a produção, comercialização e controle de qualidade desses itens, visando garantir a saúde pública.
Este documento presenta un análisis de la situación actual de la ciencia, tecnología e innovación en Venezuela. Resume la evolución histórica de la institucionalización de la actividad científica en el país desde los primeros años de la república hasta la actualidad, destacando hitos como la creación de facultades de ciencias en las universidades en los años 50 y 60. También analiza el contexto global y regional, así como el entorno económico y político nacional actual que enfrenta Venezuela.
El documento habla sobre Ecopetrol, la empresa petrolera más grande de Colombia. Explica el origen y características básicas de Ecopetrol, lo que hace la empresa como operadora petrolera, y brevemente sobre el gas natural. También menciona el marco estratégico, documentos legales, y reconocimientos recibidos por Ecopetrol.
Este documento discute as noções de texto e intertextualidade. Primeiramente, define texto como qualquer coisa capaz de gerar significado através da interação entre leitor e obra, em vez de ser limitado a um sistema semiótico específico. Segundo, critica a noção de signo como unidade básica de análise textual, argumentando que o signo é na verdade um texto truncado. Por fim, discute três premissas comuns na leitura de textos que limitam suas possibilidades de significado.
1º política social e desenvolvimento no brasil revista economia e sociedade...claudio alfonso
Este artigo discute as conexões entre política social e desenvolvimento no Brasil. Argumenta-se que o desenvolvimento abrange mais do que economia, incluindo elementos políticos, sociais e ambientais. A política social do Estado é fundamental para o desenvolvimento ao promover justiça social, crescimento econômico e distribuição de renda. O artigo analisa essas conexões por meio de variáveis quantificáveis para o caso brasileiro.
La Web 2.0 se caracteriza por facilitar el compartir información y la interacción entre usuarios a través de herramientas como blogs, wikis y redes sociales. La Web 3.0 busca que las máquinas puedan procesar la información de la web de una forma más eficiente a través de lenguajes semánticos y la inteligencia artificial para entender mejor a los usuarios. Algunas características propuestas incluyen transformar la web en una base de datos y aplicar tecnologías como la web semántica, geoespacial y 3D.
Este documento presenta un resumen de "La Ciencia de Hacerse Rico" de Wallace D. Wattles. En menos de 3 oraciones, resume lo siguiente:
1) El documento incluye la portada, una tabla de contenidos y los primeros dos capítulos del libro que argumentan que existe una ciencia para enriquecerse mediante hacer las cosas de cierta manera y que esta ciencia es tan exacta como las matemáticas.
El documento habla sobre el concepto de desarrollo sustentable. Explica que la sustentabilidad se refiere al equilibrio entre las especies y los recursos del entorno para satisfacer las necesidades actuales sin comprometer las futuras. Luego describe cinco principios de sustentabilidad como el precautorio, la interdependencia, la eficiencia y el equilibrio. Finalmente discute tres dimensiones de sustentabilidad como la ecológica, social y económica y la importancia de una visión sistémica para enfocar el cambio hacia la sustentabilidad en
Las Normas APA son un conjunto de normas y directrices propuestas por la Asociación Estadounidense de Psicología para asegurar una presentación clara y consistente de material escrito, incluyendo elementos como tablas, encabezados, citas de referencias, ética, puntuación y presentación de estadísticas. El software libre permite usar, copiar, modificar y redistribuir el software libremente y existen diferentes licencias como GPL, AGPL y BSD. Los derechos de autor protegen los derechos morales y patrimoniales de los autores
Este documento resume los principales conceptos y teorías del enfoque cibernético o sistémico de la administración. Explica que este enfoque se basa en la teoría general de sistemas y ve a las organizaciones como sistemas abiertos que interactúan con su entorno. También describe algunos modelos clave como el modelo de Katz y Kahn y el modelo sociotécnico de Tavistock que analizan a las organizaciones como sistemas sociales.
Los primeros pobladores del Ecuador fueron tribus nómadas de cazadores-recolectores. A lo largo de los períodos precerámico, formativo, de desarrollo regional e integración, surgieron diversas culturas como Valdivia, Machalilla, Chorrera, Jambelí, Guangala, Bahía y Jama-Coaque, que desarrollaron la agricultura, alfarería y organización política. Posteriormente, los incas conquistaron a la mayoría de estas culturas y establecieron su imperio, fundando ciudades como Tome
Este documento discute varios términos utilizados para referirse al movimiento contra el uso y discriminación de animales no humanos, incluyendo "defensa de los animales", "liberación animal" y "abolicionismo". Explica que estos términos a menudo son ambiguos y no capturan con precisión la postura de oponerse completamente al uso de animales. Propone que se necesitan expresiones más claras para definir esta posición.
La Dra. María Emilia Caballero Acosta se ha destacado por su dedicación a la docencia en matemáticas en la UNAM durante más de 40 años. Ha impartido cursos en diversas universidades mexicanas y del extranjero. Recientemente coordinó una conferencia internacional sobre procesos estocásticos en Oaxaca con la asistencia de 350 especialistas. La Dra. Caballero ha formado a varias generaciones de estudiantes en áreas como análisis matemático, probabilidad y procesos estocásticos.
Quality Score is a diagnostic tool advertisers can use to guide optimizations, but should not be the primary focus. It summarizes recent performance based on three components: expected click-through rate, ad relevance, and landing page experience. Each component is rated as above average, average, or below average. Advertisers should diagnose issues using Quality Score, focus efforts on high-value areas they can impact, and optimize the "big three" components to improve user experience. Specific things like account structure or other networks targeted do not impact Quality Score.
La Web 2.0 se refiere a aplicaciones y páginas web que utilizan la inteligencia colectiva para proporcionar servicios interactivos en red, dando al usuario el control de sus datos. Estas aplicaciones se caracterizan por permitir que los usuarios modifiquen y actualicen el contenido, y funcionan más como puntos de encuentro que como páginas estáticas. El término fue acuñado por Dale Dougherty para describir cómo la web estaba evolucionando hacia modelos basados en redes sociales e interacción entre usuarios.
El documento proporciona información sobre un curso de Protocolo y Producción de Eventos ofrecido por la Universidad Santo Tomas en su sede de Santiago. El curso dura 15 horas entre clases teóricas y prácticas, con 30 participantes. Su objetivo es enseñar sobre la importancia del protocolo y ceremonial en eventos para proyectar la identidad corporativa de una institución. El costo total del curso es de $2,408,660 pesos chilenos.
Time management refers to planning and exercising control over how time is spent on specific activities. It involves using skills, tools, and techniques to accomplish tasks and goals more effectively and efficiently. Key time management skills include setting goals, planning and scheduling, prioritizing, decision making, and delegating. Improving time management involves making to-do lists, scheduling blocks of time for each task in order of priority, being reasonable about what can be accomplished each day, breaking larger projects into smaller pieces, pairing tasks, and taking time to relax.
The document provides an overview of the current state of the prevocational training program in NSW presented by Craig Bingham. It discusses the growth of the program, recommendations from an external review to improve the model and assessment process, and data from reports on program funding, teaching activities, and DPET turnover and duties. Bingham concludes by noting the variability between training sites and strong overall support among DPETs for the networked training system.
Este documento describe una investigación sobre la calidad brindada por los establecimientos de comidas rápidas en la comuna 5 de Villavicencio. Explica que el objetivo es comparar la calidad que ofrecen estos establecimientos en varios barrios. También presenta definiciones de calidad, normas sanitarias aplicables y aspectos que deben considerarse como la higiene e infraestructura para brindar un buen servicio.
O documento resume a história de Pinóquio. Conta que Gepeto, um carpinteiro, criou um boneco de madeira chamado Pinóquio. A fada madrinha o transformou em um menino de verdade. Gepeto queria que Pinóquio fosse para a escola, mas ele fugiu e acabou se metendo em encrencas, como seguir dois ladrões e quase se transformar em burro. No final, Pinóquio se redimiu e foi recompensado se tornando um menino de verdade.
El documento es la historia de vida del autor. Narró que nació en Cajamarca y se enfermó gravemente de niño debido a las alicuyas que estaban destruyendo su hígado. Sus padres casi venden su terreno para comprar las medicinas que lo salvarían. Luego estudió la primaria en su pueblo natal y la secundaria en Cajamarca, donde formó grandes amistades y participó en diversas competencias y actividades escolares.
O documento discute a Teoria Tridimensional do Direito de Miguel Reale, que vê o direito como composto por Fato, Valor e Norma. Também analisa o Artigo 170 da Constituição Federal de 1988, que estabelece os princípios da ordem econômica brasileira como Soberania Nacional, Propriedade Privada, Livre Concorrência e outros. Conclui que a teoria influenciou o Código Civil brasileiro ao estabelecer uma disciplina jurídica tridimensional de direitos humanos.
This document is a thesis submitted by Steve Cultrera to Central Connecticut State University analyzing the impact of weather on runs scored in baseball games at Fenway Park in Boston over 40 years. It reviews previous literature that found variables like hits, walks, and stolen bases explain over 95% of runs scored, but none looked at weather impacts. The thesis aims to determine if weather variables like temperature, wind, and pressure can explain additional variance in runs. It describes the dataset created by combining baseball game data from Fenway Park with weather data from a nearby airport. Exploratory analysis, clustering, and predictive modeling techniques are used to analyze the data and relationships between weather and runs scored.
This document summarizes the author's proposal for a new advanced lacrosse statistic called LAX IMPACT! to better evaluate player performance in Major League Lacrosse. It finds current lacrosse stats are limited and don't account for context. LAX IMPACT! calculates a player's points per team possession by considering shots, ground balls, and faceoff wins. An analysis of 2015 MLL data ranks players and finds top teams don't always have highest LAX IMPACT! due to style of play differences. The author believes advanced stats can help teams evaluate players and improve as salaries rise.
This paper examines the relationship between MLB players' salaries and various performance statistics from the 2013 season. The authors regress salary data against age, games played, home runs, slugging percentage, hits, at bats, and on-base percentage for 447 players after removing pitchers. Their model explains 51.39% of salary variation, suggesting these statistics significantly influence pay. Home runs, hits, at bats, and on-base percentage positively impact salary, while slugging percentage has a negative effect. The paper concludes player salaries can be reasonably predicted using performance data.
Este documento presenta un resumen de "La Ciencia de Hacerse Rico" de Wallace D. Wattles. En menos de 3 oraciones, resume lo siguiente:
1) El documento incluye la portada, una tabla de contenidos y los primeros dos capítulos del libro que argumentan que existe una ciencia para enriquecerse mediante hacer las cosas de cierta manera y que esta ciencia es tan exacta como las matemáticas.
El documento habla sobre el concepto de desarrollo sustentable. Explica que la sustentabilidad se refiere al equilibrio entre las especies y los recursos del entorno para satisfacer las necesidades actuales sin comprometer las futuras. Luego describe cinco principios de sustentabilidad como el precautorio, la interdependencia, la eficiencia y el equilibrio. Finalmente discute tres dimensiones de sustentabilidad como la ecológica, social y económica y la importancia de una visión sistémica para enfocar el cambio hacia la sustentabilidad en
Las Normas APA son un conjunto de normas y directrices propuestas por la Asociación Estadounidense de Psicología para asegurar una presentación clara y consistente de material escrito, incluyendo elementos como tablas, encabezados, citas de referencias, ética, puntuación y presentación de estadísticas. El software libre permite usar, copiar, modificar y redistribuir el software libremente y existen diferentes licencias como GPL, AGPL y BSD. Los derechos de autor protegen los derechos morales y patrimoniales de los autores
Este documento resume los principales conceptos y teorías del enfoque cibernético o sistémico de la administración. Explica que este enfoque se basa en la teoría general de sistemas y ve a las organizaciones como sistemas abiertos que interactúan con su entorno. También describe algunos modelos clave como el modelo de Katz y Kahn y el modelo sociotécnico de Tavistock que analizan a las organizaciones como sistemas sociales.
Los primeros pobladores del Ecuador fueron tribus nómadas de cazadores-recolectores. A lo largo de los períodos precerámico, formativo, de desarrollo regional e integración, surgieron diversas culturas como Valdivia, Machalilla, Chorrera, Jambelí, Guangala, Bahía y Jama-Coaque, que desarrollaron la agricultura, alfarería y organización política. Posteriormente, los incas conquistaron a la mayoría de estas culturas y establecieron su imperio, fundando ciudades como Tome
Este documento discute varios términos utilizados para referirse al movimiento contra el uso y discriminación de animales no humanos, incluyendo "defensa de los animales", "liberación animal" y "abolicionismo". Explica que estos términos a menudo son ambiguos y no capturan con precisión la postura de oponerse completamente al uso de animales. Propone que se necesitan expresiones más claras para definir esta posición.
La Dra. María Emilia Caballero Acosta se ha destacado por su dedicación a la docencia en matemáticas en la UNAM durante más de 40 años. Ha impartido cursos en diversas universidades mexicanas y del extranjero. Recientemente coordinó una conferencia internacional sobre procesos estocásticos en Oaxaca con la asistencia de 350 especialistas. La Dra. Caballero ha formado a varias generaciones de estudiantes en áreas como análisis matemático, probabilidad y procesos estocásticos.
Quality Score is a diagnostic tool advertisers can use to guide optimizations, but should not be the primary focus. It summarizes recent performance based on three components: expected click-through rate, ad relevance, and landing page experience. Each component is rated as above average, average, or below average. Advertisers should diagnose issues using Quality Score, focus efforts on high-value areas they can impact, and optimize the "big three" components to improve user experience. Specific things like account structure or other networks targeted do not impact Quality Score.
La Web 2.0 se refiere a aplicaciones y páginas web que utilizan la inteligencia colectiva para proporcionar servicios interactivos en red, dando al usuario el control de sus datos. Estas aplicaciones se caracterizan por permitir que los usuarios modifiquen y actualicen el contenido, y funcionan más como puntos de encuentro que como páginas estáticas. El término fue acuñado por Dale Dougherty para describir cómo la web estaba evolucionando hacia modelos basados en redes sociales e interacción entre usuarios.
El documento proporciona información sobre un curso de Protocolo y Producción de Eventos ofrecido por la Universidad Santo Tomas en su sede de Santiago. El curso dura 15 horas entre clases teóricas y prácticas, con 30 participantes. Su objetivo es enseñar sobre la importancia del protocolo y ceremonial en eventos para proyectar la identidad corporativa de una institución. El costo total del curso es de $2,408,660 pesos chilenos.
Time management refers to planning and exercising control over how time is spent on specific activities. It involves using skills, tools, and techniques to accomplish tasks and goals more effectively and efficiently. Key time management skills include setting goals, planning and scheduling, prioritizing, decision making, and delegating. Improving time management involves making to-do lists, scheduling blocks of time for each task in order of priority, being reasonable about what can be accomplished each day, breaking larger projects into smaller pieces, pairing tasks, and taking time to relax.
The document provides an overview of the current state of the prevocational training program in NSW presented by Craig Bingham. It discusses the growth of the program, recommendations from an external review to improve the model and assessment process, and data from reports on program funding, teaching activities, and DPET turnover and duties. Bingham concludes by noting the variability between training sites and strong overall support among DPETs for the networked training system.
Este documento describe una investigación sobre la calidad brindada por los establecimientos de comidas rápidas en la comuna 5 de Villavicencio. Explica que el objetivo es comparar la calidad que ofrecen estos establecimientos en varios barrios. También presenta definiciones de calidad, normas sanitarias aplicables y aspectos que deben considerarse como la higiene e infraestructura para brindar un buen servicio.
O documento resume a história de Pinóquio. Conta que Gepeto, um carpinteiro, criou um boneco de madeira chamado Pinóquio. A fada madrinha o transformou em um menino de verdade. Gepeto queria que Pinóquio fosse para a escola, mas ele fugiu e acabou se metendo em encrencas, como seguir dois ladrões e quase se transformar em burro. No final, Pinóquio se redimiu e foi recompensado se tornando um menino de verdade.
El documento es la historia de vida del autor. Narró que nació en Cajamarca y se enfermó gravemente de niño debido a las alicuyas que estaban destruyendo su hígado. Sus padres casi venden su terreno para comprar las medicinas que lo salvarían. Luego estudió la primaria en su pueblo natal y la secundaria en Cajamarca, donde formó grandes amistades y participó en diversas competencias y actividades escolares.
O documento discute a Teoria Tridimensional do Direito de Miguel Reale, que vê o direito como composto por Fato, Valor e Norma. Também analisa o Artigo 170 da Constituição Federal de 1988, que estabelece os princípios da ordem econômica brasileira como Soberania Nacional, Propriedade Privada, Livre Concorrência e outros. Conclui que a teoria influenciou o Código Civil brasileiro ao estabelecer uma disciplina jurídica tridimensional de direitos humanos.
This document is a thesis submitted by Steve Cultrera to Central Connecticut State University analyzing the impact of weather on runs scored in baseball games at Fenway Park in Boston over 40 years. It reviews previous literature that found variables like hits, walks, and stolen bases explain over 95% of runs scored, but none looked at weather impacts. The thesis aims to determine if weather variables like temperature, wind, and pressure can explain additional variance in runs. It describes the dataset created by combining baseball game data from Fenway Park with weather data from a nearby airport. Exploratory analysis, clustering, and predictive modeling techniques are used to analyze the data and relationships between weather and runs scored.
This document summarizes the author's proposal for a new advanced lacrosse statistic called LAX IMPACT! to better evaluate player performance in Major League Lacrosse. It finds current lacrosse stats are limited and don't account for context. LAX IMPACT! calculates a player's points per team possession by considering shots, ground balls, and faceoff wins. An analysis of 2015 MLL data ranks players and finds top teams don't always have highest LAX IMPACT! due to style of play differences. The author believes advanced stats can help teams evaluate players and improve as salaries rise.
This paper examines the relationship between MLB players' salaries and various performance statistics from the 2013 season. The authors regress salary data against age, games played, home runs, slugging percentage, hits, at bats, and on-base percentage for 447 players after removing pitchers. Their model explains 51.39% of salary variation, suggesting these statistics significantly influence pay. Home runs, hits, at bats, and on-base percentage positively impact salary, while slugging percentage has a negative effect. The paper concludes player salaries can be reasonably predicted using performance data.
This document discusses predicting the outcomes of National Hockey League (NHL) games using machine learning models. It aims to improve upon the results of a previous study by the University of Ottawa that achieved 60% accuracy. The document uses the same dataset from the Ottawa study containing statistics from 517 NHL games. It builds machine learning models using decision trees, neural networks, and a proprietary software to predict game outcomes. The models are built using different combinations of the dataset's categorical and continuous variables. The best performing models achieve accuracies between 57-62%, showing an improvement over the previous study.
The document summarizes a study examining whether race is a factor in determining salaries for NFL players. The study collected data on 130 players' salaries, statistics, race, position, and years played. Regression analysis found that race was not a statistically significant predictor of salary. However, the study notes that positions in the NFL are dominated by certain races, with whites more likely to play quarterback and blacks more likely to play running back or wide receiver. This correlation between race and position raises questions about whether racial stereotypes influence player evaluations and positioning. Further research is needed to understand potential discrimination in how players are categorized by position.
1. After watching the attached video by Dan Pink on .docxjeremylockett77
1. After watching the attached video by Dan Pink on the inherent weaknesses of extrinsic motivators, present two salient applications to your role as a leader in athletics. Dan Pink: The puzzle of motivation Ted.com
2. One of the very real truisms about leadership is that it can be lonely at the top and quite stressful. Please describe two specific ways you as a leader manage stress in your life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Annala, C. N., & Winfree, J. (2011). Salary distribution and team performance in Major League Baseball. Sport Management Review, 14(2), 167-175.
Breunig, R., Garrett-Rumba, B., Jardin, M., & Rocaboy, Y. (2014). Wage dispersion and team performance: a theoretical model and evidence from baseball. Applied Economics, 46(3), 271-281.
Devi R. (2016). Data.world. Baseball Stats. Retrieved September 25, 2019 from https://data.world/deviramanan2016/baseball-stats
Lee, S., & Harris, J. (2012). Managing excellence in USA Major League Soccer: an analysis of the relationship between player performance and salary. Managing Leisure, 17(2-3), 106- 123.
Scully, G. W. (1974). Pay and performance in major league baseball. The American Economic Review, 64(6), 915-930.
Sommers, P. M., & Quinton, N. (1982). Pay and performance in major league baseball: The case of the first family of free agents. The Journal of Human Resources, 17(3), 426-436.
Tao, Y. L., Chuang, H. L., & Lin, E. S. (2016). Compensation and performance in Major League Baseball: Evidence from salary dispersion and team performance. International Review of Economics & Finance, 43, 151-159.
Wiseman, F., & Chatterjee, S. (2003). Team payroll and team performance in major league baseball: 1985–2002. Economics Bulletin, 1(2), 1-10.
Running Head: PAY AND PERFORMANCE IN MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL 1
PAY AND PERFORMANCE IN MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL 5
PAY AND PERFORMANCE IN MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL
RODERICK HOOKS
9-16-2019
Purpose statement and model
This study will try to examine whether there is a relationship between the payment and performance of a team. Performance is the dependent variable measured by wins of a team in the 2010 Major League Baseball (Tao Y. et al, 2016). This is the suitable dependent variable since the wins for a team can be influenced by many factors and the final results are the main target of every team (Scully G., 1974). The primary independent variable is payroll which the totals pay of the team (Wiseman F. & Chatterjee S., 2003). This is suitable in determining whether there is relationship between pay and performance due to the fact that a higher anticipates higher performance since many challenges for the team can be solved by financial stability (Sommers P. & Quinton N., 1982).
The general form of the model will be;
Wins = b0 + b1Payroll + b2Attendance + Error (
Definitions of variables
The variables used in this study are wins, payroll and attendance. Win is the dependent variable measuring the number of games the team wins. I ...
Sports Aanalytics - Goaltender PerformanceJason Mei
- Goaltenders are more likely to allow a goal in the first 5 shots after allowing a previous goal, showing a cumulative 1.87% increased chance of letting in a goal. This suggests goaltenders' confidence is temporarily impacted after letting in a goal.
- However, individual goaltenders show variable patterns in performance after goals, with impacts differing based on each player's mental response to in-game events.
- While goals tend to be "clustered" right after another for the team overall, the effect is not uniform for all goaltenders and seems to depend more on the individual's psychological state.
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Estimating Attendance at Major League Baseball Games for the 2008-2012 Seasons
1. Streips, Suen, Sullivan, Zerweck 45-752 Project (Trick) April 30, 2014
1
INTRODUCTION
Several factors such as starting pitcher, temperature/weather, team record, traffic, and
more play a role in attendance. However, these factors are unpredictable and cannot be used for
planning ahead. As consultants to Major League Baseball (MLB), our group has the primary goal
of increasing attendance through statistical analysis. Using data from over 12,000 games over
four years, we make recommendations to the MLB on changes they can make to the schedule to
increase attendance.
THE SPECIFICATION (MODEL)
The choice of estimation procedure builds upon a prior study of MLB baseball attendance
by Lemke et al. of the 2007 season. Both game attendance and log attendance are used as the
dependent variables in ordinary least squares (OLS) and censored regression (CR) models. Right
censored regression is used to model the effects of capacity on “sell-out” games. All models are
fixed-effect (FE) models in which each home team receives its own fixed-effect to account for
local market conditions and intercity variations. We assume that unobservable factors that might
simultaneously affect the LHS and RHS of the regression are time-invariant. Explanatory
variables include: time factors (day of week, time of day, year, month); factors that influence
attendance (interleague and opening day games and games on holidays); and, whether two
games are played in a city at once (New York City, San Francisco Bay Area, Chicago,
Washington, DC, and Los Angeles). The OLS models are AR(1) to account for correlation of
errors in the time-series data. The Newey-West estimator is used to correct for autocorrelation
and heteroskedasticity in the error terms of the OLS models, serving to weaken the assumptions
of the model. Nine dummy variables control for the day of the week and the time of the game.
There is a separate dummy variable for each day, Monday through Friday, plus a variable for
playing a day game during the week. Saturday and Sunday games are each further separated by
time of day. Additionally, there are are five dummy variables to control for the month and four
more variables to control for the year.
THE DATA
The data includes the date, time of day, and attendance records of all MLB games played
over the 2008-2012 seasons (inclusive) for a total of 12,100 observations. Mean attendance at
MLB games was 30,860 people for the period in questions, with a range of 8,269 (TOR vs. TMB
on April 22, 2008) and 57,099 (SFN v. LAN on April 13, 2009) (see full detail of descriptive
statistics at Table
2, Appendix). The observations also include whether or not each game was at
capacity, was played on opening day or a holiday, involved interleague play, or was held on the
same day as another game in the same metropolitan area (as indicator variables).
REGRESSION RESULTS
When using attendance or log attendance as the dependent variables, estimated
coefficients are interpreted as changes in attendance or percentage changes in attendance
(respectively). For example, under the OLS model, a Thursday night game averages 3,288 fewer
attendees than a Sunday afternoon game (see OLS regression at Table
3, Appendix). Using log
attendance, the same data would be interpreted as 14.41 percent fewer in attendance. The
baseline is attendance at a Sunday afternoon game held in FLO in April 2008 that is not on
opening day, and not on a holiday or an interleague game (21,007 people).
Based on the CR models, the semi-log functional form is judged to be the better model
based on Akaike info criterion (0.427297 vs. 16.6486). Only OAK and the simultaneous game
cities (except NY2) are not statistically significant factors in both CR models, which confirm the
conclusions that may drawn from the OLS models.
2. Streips, Suen, Sullivan, Zerweck 45-752 Project (Trick) April 30, 2014
2
The proportion of the variance in attendance and log attendance that is explained by the
OLS models are 0.6919 and 0.6752, respectively, with the adjusted R-squared values being
slightly lower (0.6904 and 0.6752). All OLS model coefficients are statistically significant (within
0.05 significance) with the exception of the simultaneous game variables, Sunday night games,
home team game attendance at OAK, and (for the log attendance model) Friday night games
(see Table
4, Appendix). The simultaneous game coefficients were left in the model to support
the findings and recommendations of this report. Removing these variables from the model did
not have a significant impact the ability of the model to explain variability in attendance. The signs
and magnitudes of the coefficients are in alignment with expectations relative to the baseline
(FLO having the lowest league attendance) and with the descriptive statistics of the data set (see
Table
2, Appendix). Leverage plots were performed on each coefficient without suggesting
nonlinearities. The model was rejected by the Ramsey test, but given the large time series data
set, we hold the Ramsey test to be uninformative. Choosing the functional form to be
untransformed or semi-log is supported by the academic literature.
From the model we make a few general observations: Monday through Thursday games
draw significantly fewer fans than Saturday or Sunday afternoon games. Day games in general
offer slightly higher attendance than night games. Attendance is expected to be less in
September compared to July and August, and is expected to be more on major holidays.
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Monday vs. Thursday Off Days
The most commonly scheduled off days in the league are Monday and Thursday, when
teams often travel home or away for a new series. Viewing our OLS regression results (Table
3,
Appendix), we see that Monday and Thursday both imply a statistically significant negative
attendance effect when compared with the baseline of Sunday daytime games. At first glimpse, it
seems that Monday indicates a larger negative effect on attendance than Thursday, but to be
certain, we can conduct a Wald Test (Table
7, Appendix).
For this Wald test, we made Monday + Daytime = Thursday + Daytime our null
hypothesis. This resulted in a p-value of 0.1865, which means that we do not have enough
evidence to reject the hypothesis at a 0.05 level that Monday and Thursday games are the same.
From a statistical standpoint, there is no difference between Monday and Thursday games, but
from a managerial perspective, it might be interesting to know that there will occasionally be
differences. It may be prudent to slightly favor Monday off days when scheduling because the
Monday coefficient has a larger negative effect on attendance.
Annual Attendance
Using numbers from the OLS regression (Table
3, Appendix), we put together an annual
attendance graph (Figure
1, Appendix) as implied by the annual indicator variables (2008 - 2012).
This information will give us the means to analyze some very general attendance trends for Major
League Baseball.
We notice that our baseline year of 2008 indicates peak annual attendance, followed by
strong declines through 2010. The trend then turns upward with some weak growth in 2011 and
2012. We conclude that the trend in attendance is directly related to the Great Recession, which
officially lasted from December 2007 to June 2009 in the U.S (source:
http://www.nber.org/cycles.html).
Looking at a chart of Real GDP (source: http://www.multpl.com/us-gdp-inflation-
adjusted/table, Figure
2, Appendix), we can see that baseball attendance seems to follow these
trends, lagging by about 1 year. One very important concern is that baseball attendance has not
3. Streips, Suen, Sullivan, Zerweck 45-752 Project (Trick) April 30, 2014
3
recovered as quickly as the rest of the American economy. While the league’s growth trend is
positive, it should try and identify other factors that may be causing slower recovery. It should
also use this data to anticipate attendance in the event of a future economic downturn. If MLB can
use GDP as an indicator, it can better prepare and anticipate for losses caused by poor
attendance.
Should the MLB be concerned with multiple intra-city games on the same day?
While none of our OLS model two game variables (NY2, BAY2, CHI2, DC2, and LA2)
were statistically significant at the 0.05 percent level, we believe there is still a useful
interpretation to some of the coefficients. Eighty-seven percent (1-0.1264) of the time, when both
NY teams in NY play, there will be an increase of 1,564 in attendance. Eighty-five percent of the
time, when both Bay Area teams play in the Bay Area, there will be a 1,102 drop in attendance.
Additionally, 80% of the time, Chicago will see a 656 person increase in attendance. NY2 is
statistically significant under our CR model analysis, further highlighting the managerial
significance of simultaneous games in the New York metropolitan area.
These numbers are what we call managerially significant. While not enough to make
more certain statistical predictions, we recommend using this data to make educated decisions,
with the realization that they will occasionally be incorrect. The NY and Chicago positive effects
could possibly be explained by the rivalry between the intra-city teams. Advising NY and Chicago
teams to work together to schedule same day home games would be a good idea, but it should
be emphasized that this should not be a priority. Considering that the sample size for having two
NY games is less than 25 per season, we felt that there could have been other factors (e.g.
Special City-wide events) affecting attendance on those specific days that are not accounted for
in the data.
The Bay Area is unique because of the negative overall effect implied. One possible
explanation is that the Giants are much more popular than the A’s, as evidenced by the HTeam
coefficients of 15,789 for the Giants and 198 for the A’s (HTeam=”OAK” is far from statistically
significant, suggesting no effect on attendance). This data suggests that when the Giants and A’s
play on the same day in the Bay Area, the Giants overpower the A’s and there is an overall
negative effect. It also could be explained by the fact that these two teams do not have a rivalry
with high levels of animosity, unlike NY and Chicago.
Should the MLB care about day versus night games?
Sunday afternoon games are the baseline in the regression, Saturday, and Sunday night
games are all better than a weekend Day Game. Saturday and Sunday night games experience
an overall increase of 4,209 and 958, respectively. The main explanation for this is that people
generally have more free time on weekends. Furthermore, weekday (including Friday) day games
on average have 757 more in attendance than weekday night games. Our intuitive explanation for
this is that weekday night games do not end until later in the night and many people have to work
the following morning. Additionally, many people take advantage of the “businessperson special”
games and promotion/giveaway games that are in the day time.
Should the MLB move the schedule to start later in April and end in October?
Attendance increases as the season continues, peaking in July and August and dipping
in September, though remaining higher than April (Figure
3, Appendix). While the end of the
season still has better attendance than the beginning, there is more uncertainty in cold weather
cities, the start of the football season, and how the playoffs will affect attendance. However, the
combined effect of summer weekend games is even more powerful (Table
1). For this reason, we
would recommend eliminating as many April and September games as possible and replacing
them with day/night weekend doubleheaders in July and August.
4. Streips, Suen, Sullivan, Zerweck 45-752 Project (Trick) April 30, 2014
4
Saturday Day Saturday Night Sunday Night
July + 6390 + 7943 + 4692
August + 5547 + 7100 + 3849
Table
1:
Coefficients
of
Saturdays
and
Sundays
during
Peak
Months
Because this recommendation would likely be resisted by the player’s union, we would
also recommend starting and ending the season later. Overall, the data suggests that doing so
would increase attendance; however, we remain cautious as autocorrelation could affect the
prediction.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, our study of attendance at MLB games for the 2008-2012 seasons yield
the following observations:
The league should not be concerned with Monday versus Thursday off days as the variables
were not statistically different from each other. While baseball attendance had not reached 2008
levels by the end of 2012, overall attendance seems to be correlated with the Great Recession
and disposable income. New York, Chicago, and Bay area teams should all be concerned with
having multiple intra-city games on the same day. However, this should not be a major concern
as there is a 0.15-0.20 probability this effect will not happen. Day games have higher attendance
than night games on weekdays, but this effect is reversed and magnified for Saturday and
Sunday. If possible, the league should cut games from the beginning of the season in April and
make them up in the form of double headers on weekends in July and August. If this is not
realistic, the league should cautiously begin to start and end the season later in the year, but
beware of playoff and temperature effects.