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1. Erasmus+, Key Action 2: Strategic partnership
PROJECT NUMBER: 2015-1-FR01-KA203-015261
IO1: Open Online Courses on Social Entrepreneurship
Learning Material
Entrepreneurship

2. Introduction to Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship has become increasingly important for businesses of all sizes around
the world.
It opens new opportunities and possibilities for the businesses to create values for
themselves and for the society at large.
Despite its popularity, studies suggest that the scope of entrepreneurship remains
unknown, and therefore the prospects of entrepreneurial activities remains not fully
realised.
This chapter highlights some aspects concerning the concept of entrepreneur,
entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial process and finally the entrepreneurship opportunities
and challenges.
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3. Introduction to Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurs have always been present, however their behavioural patterns were different in different periods of
time.
The word entrepreneur was derived from the French word “entreprendre”, which means “to undertake” (Kuratko,
2016).
The usage of the term entrepreneur can be traced from 1755, wherein an entrepreneur was described to “buy the
country produce from those who bring it or to order it to be brought on their account. They pay a certain price to
resell wholesale or retail at an uncertain price” (Cantillon, 1931, p.51; Hamilton & Harper, 1994)
Entrepreneur from the very beginning, was principally an independent speculator of the commodity (Hamilton &
Harper, 1994)
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4. Introduction to Entrepreneurship
In the modern day markets, the term entrepreneur has been closely linked with economic development.
An economic development can emerge due to several reasons, which includes:
(a) the launch of new source of procurement for raw materials or materials
(b) the introduction of a new production mechanism
(c) the introduction of a new quality of product, or a novel product
(d) the opening of new market
(e) the re-organisation of a business.
The management of all these aspects are carried by an enterprise, and the people whose functions are to
carry out these activities are called entrepreneurs (Bull & Willard, 1993)
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5. Introduction to Entrepreneurship
take risks whilst
seeking rewards for
their ventures and
efforts (Kuratko,
2016)
create value through
multiple stakeholders
and resources
transform the
opportunities into
merchandisable
concepts
innovators or
developers who
identify and capture
opportunities
In contemporary
markets, entrepreneur
act as:
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6. Definition of an Entrepreneur
To date, several definitions have been penned to describe an entrepreneur. And some of them are
mentioned herewith:
Entrepreneur is someone who manages all the necessary resources to produce and market a product which
responds to the market scarcity (Leibenstein, 1968; Bull & Willard, 1993).
“Entrepreneurs are individuals who recognize opportunities where others see chaos contradiction, and
confusion. They are aggressive catalysts for change within the marketplace” Kuratko (2016, p.3)
“Entrepreneur is the person who carries out new combinations, causing discontinuity. The role is completed
when the function is completed. The person may be an employee with an existing organisation or may start
a new venture. An investor per se only risks capital for a return.” Bull & Willard (1993, p. 186)
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7. Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
The main characteristics of the entrepreneur are due to their sociological and psychological factors. Some of those
characteristics are mentioned below:
Entrepreneurs are vision-oriented people
Entrepreneurs have a high need in achievement
Entrepreneurs do not rely on fate or luck, however they try to control their own lives
Entrepreneurs undertake moderate risks, which is why they look for high earning on their investments
Entrepreneurs have the abilities to deal with several ambiguous situations in their ventures. They face these ambiguous
situations and circumstances regularly because they do certain jobs and tasks which are entirely new by nature.
Entrepreneurs have the tendency to be productive and efficient with in a given period of time. However, at times, they
might be seen as inflexible individuals in team-work.
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8. Traits of an Entrepreneur
Risk takers
Flexible
Knowledgeable
Independent
Energetic
Creative
Dynamic leader
Responsive to suggestions or
criticisms
Resourceful
Initiators
Persistent
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Some of the common traits of entrepreneurs are :

9. Description of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is an “act of establishing a new venture” Christensen et al,
(2000, p.4)
Entrepreneurship can also be considered as the function through which growth
and development can be achieved without commencing a new business venture.
It offers a process by which people either inside the companies or on their own,
look for prospects without regard to the resources they presently control
(Stevenson et al, 1989; Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990).
However, “an entrepreneurial organisation is that which pursues opportunity,
regardless of resources currently controlled” Stevenson & Jarillo (1990, p.23).
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10. Definition of Entrepreneurship
“Entrepreneurship is the creation of
organisations. What differentiates
entrepreneurs from non-entrepreneurs is
that entrepreneurs create organisation,
while non-entrepreneurs do not. In
behavioural approaches to the study of
entrepreneurship, an entrepreneur is seen
as a set of activities involved in
organisation creation, while in trait
approaches an entrepreneur is a set of
personality traits and characteristics”
Gartner (1988, p.11)
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11. Types of Entrepreneurship
Achievement
entrepreneur
Salesman
entrepreneur
Technology
entrepreneur
Manager
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There are generally four entrepreneurial types:
Source: Adapted from Carsrud & Brannback, 2007)

12. Types of Entrepreneurship
Achievement entrepreneur
Primarily associated with the desire to achieve.
These types of individuals are usually having an enormous amount of energy and capabilities to take charge.
They take initiatives and do not wait for things to happen.
They often possess the leadership qualities and have a great sense of commitment and responsibility in their
ventures.
These types of individuals are good in several in several business related aspects and they try to accomplish
their objectives, whilst heading their missions. (Carsrud & Brannback, 2007).
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13. Types of Entrepreneurship
Salesman entrepreneur:
 These individuals possess skills to interact with people and have very good soft side of the management
aspects.
 These people are typified for having the feelings of the consumers’ needs and wants.
 They usually use the soft sales approach whilst pursuing the growth of their ventures.
 They have enormous talent for connecting with people and spend most of their time in marketing their
products/services and permit other people to manage their businesses.
 These individuals therefore devote their time to understand who and how are the consumers in the market.
 They develop a proper vision for marketing and sales practices to reach wider consumer groups. (Carsrud &
Brannback, 2007).
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14. Types of Entrepreneurship
Technology entrepreneur:
 Individuals belong to this category, are generally idea developers.
 These individuals often possess great ideas
 They have the capabilities to develop innovative processes and invent novel products or services for niche
markets.
 As these individuals possess qualities to create several ideas they have a good analytical intelligence and
take calculated risks in their ventures
 Although these individuals possess good analytical intelligence to make way through several situations,
however, at times their missions can become a bit idealistic. (Carsrud & Brannback, 2007).
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15. Types of Entrepreneurship
Manager:
 These types of individuals possess the qualities of taking charge of the missions.
 Individuals belonging to this type of entrepreneurship are very competitive by nature but not as co-
operative as one would expect in a team work.
 They are usually found to take positions of high authority, such as external investors or sometimes act as
board of directors.
 They prefer to work in larger organisations than small entrepreneurial businesses.
 They seek comfort in making effective marketing strategies, but not necessary selling products or services.
 Their ways to sell are different, they employ logic and carefully thought persuasions, as mechanisms to sell
their ideas.
 They have rich experiences, strong management skills and possess strength in managing existing businesses
(Carsrud & Brannback, 2007).
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16. Enrepreneurship Process
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Identify an
opportunity
Establish a vision
Persuade others
Gather resources
Create new venture,
product or market
Change/adapt with
time
The process of entrepreneurship
can be observed through the six-
stage process:
Source: Lall & Sahai (2007, p.16)

17. Entrepreneurship opportunities
Entrepreneurship offers several opportunities and some of those opportunities are:
(a) expansion of entrepreneurial activities through the advent of the internet and the
explosion of e-commerce on a global scale.
(b) Integration in social and political fabrics in several emerging economies.
(c) increasing economic situations in middle income house-holds in several economies.
(d) increase in cross-border engagements and market entry mechanisms such as strategic
alliances, subsidiaries, joint ventures etc.
(e) evolving trends in channel structures among the developed world.
(f) increased engagements in global markets concerning social responsibility and ethics (Ramachandran &
Gokila, 2012).
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18. Entrepreneurship avenues
Firstly, entrepreneurs can seek information to understand the balance of trade
relationships between the exports in potential markets and the merchandising
imports.
Secondly, entrepreneurs can conduct extensive research to understand the political
aspects of the global economy to seek other outlines for strategic and operational
aspects concerning barriers to enter a market.
Thirdly, entrepreneurs can understand the developments of any domestic market of a
country and comprehend how these nations protect their industry by establishing
tariffs, quotas, boycotts, non-tariff, monetary and market barriers (Ramachandran &
Gokila, 2012).
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Contemporary markets offers several avenues for entrepreneurial activities:

19. Entrepreneurship challenges
Knowledge gap between the developed,
emerging, frontier and under developed
markets for conducting business
Difference in accounting systems in several
countries
Variable rates of return
Non-convertibility of the currencies
Communication gaps
Language barriers
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Although entrepreneurship activities are beneficial, however they come with certain challenges. Some of those
challenges are mentioned herewith:
Source: Adapted from Ramachandran & Gokila (2012).

20. Entrepreneurship challenges
Political unrest and legal
concerns
Cultural differences
Discrepancies in the use of
technology
Complexity in the markets
Supply chain concerns
Lack of specific infrastructure in
some countries or regions
Financial markets and their
volatility
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In addition, to the previously mentioned challenges, there are also some other challenges commonly found in
entrepreneurship
Source: Adapted from Ramachandran & Gokila (2012).

21. References
Baumol, W. J. (1968). Entrepreneurship in economic theory. The American economic review, 58(2), 64-71.
Bull, I., & Willard, G. E. (1993). Towards a theory of entrepreneurship. Journal of business venturing, 8(3), 183-
195.
Cantillon, R. (1775). The circulation and exchange of goods and merchandise. Chapter 13 of Higgs, H. (Ed), Essai
sur la Nature du Commerce en Général, Macmillan, London.
Carsrud, A. L., & Brännback, M. (2007). Entrepreneurship: Greenwood Guides to Business. Westport, USA:
Greenwood Press.
Christensen, P. V., Ulhøi, J. P., & Madsen, H. (2000). The entrepreneurial process in a dynamic network
perspective: a review and future directions for research. LOK Working Paper No. 6-2000, Copenhagen: LOK
Research Center.
Gartner, W. B. (1988). Who is the entrepreneur? Is the wrong question. In American Journal of Small Business;
Spring, 88, 12(4), 11-32.
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22. References
Gartner, W. B., Shaver, K. G., Gatewood, E., & Katz, J. A. (1994). Finding the entrepreneur in
entrepreneurship. (Editorial), Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. 18(3), 5-9.
Hamilton, R. T., & Harper, D. A. (1994). The entrepreneur in theory and practice. Journal of economic
Studies, 21(6), 3-18.
Kuratko, D. F. (2016). Entrepreneurship: Theory, process, and practice. Tenth Edition, Boston, USA: Cengage
Learning.
Lall, M., & Sahai, S. (2008). Entrepreneurship. Second Edition, New Delhi, India: Excel Books.
Leibenstein, H. (1968). Entrepreneurship and development. The American Economic Review, 58(2), 72-83.
Nandram, S. S., & Samsom, K. J. (2006). The spirit of entrepreneurship: Exploring the essence of
entrepreneurship through personal stories. Berlin: Springer.
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23. References
Pendergast, W. R. (2003). Entrepreneurial Contexts and Traits of Entrepreneurs. Proceedings Teaching
Entrepreneurship to Engineering students, Engineering conferences international, Monterey, CA, USA.
Ramachandran, K. K., & Gokila, R. (2012). International Entrepreneurship—Opportunities and Challenges. In
Creativity, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Jerinabi, U., & Santhi, P. (Eds), New Delhi, India: Allied Publishers
Private Limited, pp, 21- 25.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1976). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. Fifth Edition, London: George Allen & Unwin.
Stevenson, H. H., & Jarillo, J. C. (1990). A paradigm of entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial management.
Strategic Management Journal. 11(15), 17-27.
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