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An exploration of information and
information management systems
Sascha van Zijll Langhout
Supervisor Deltares: Arno Nolte
Supervisor Wageningen: Machiel Lamers
22nd
of December 2015

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Part I: Introduction
1. Introduction to the research project..................................................................................4
2. Problem description ...........................................................................................................4
3. Aim of the research project................................................................................................5
4. Methodology......................................................................................................................6
5. Reading guide.....................................................................................................................7
Part II: Theoretical basis
1. Definition of knowledge, information and data .................................................................9
2. Strategies to prepare knowledge for transfer..................................................................11
3. Strategies for knowledge management ...........................................................................12
4. Strategies for knowledge transfer....................................................................................14
5. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................16
Part III: Technical aspects
1. Lessons learned from North Sea informational websites.................................................18
1.1. Overview of the websites investigated .....................................................................18
1.2. Commonalities between informational websites......................................................24
1.3. Conclusions ...............................................................................................................25
2. Existing information management systems .....................................................................26
2.1. Description of existing systems .................................................................................26
2.2. Conclusions on existing management systems .........................................................28
3. Deltares wiki and reproducible reporting.........................................................................28
3.1. Introduction to Lake Veere............................................................................................29
3.2. Reproducible reporting .............................................................................................29
3.3. Conclusions ...............................................................................................................30
4. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................31
Part IV: Communication of information and knowledge
1. Communication strategies employed by the VNSC..........................................................32
1.1 Interview with de Levende Delta................................................................................33
1.2 Interview with Red onze Polders................................................................................33
1.3 Interview with the Zeeuwse Milieufederatie .............................................................34
1.4 Interview with the VNSC.............................................................................................34
1.5 Interview with Pantarein............................................................................................35
1.6 Interview with Waterwegen en Zeekanaal.................................................................35
1.7 Interview with the Schelderaad..................................................................................36

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1.8 Conclusions about the communication techniques ...................................................36
2. Port of the Future serious game.......................................................................................39
2.1. Introduction to Port of the Future serious game ......................................................39
2.2. Playing Port of the Future at Hogeschool Zeeland....................................................40
2.3. Conclusion Port of the Future ...................................................................................41
2.4. Discussion Port of the Future....................................................................................42
3. Deltares’ lunch lectures....................................................................................................42
3.1. Questionnaire............................................................................................................43
4. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................44
Part V: Conclusions and recommendations for further research
1. Summary of research .......................................................................................................46
2. Guidelines for an Information Management System .......................................................47
...........................................................................513. Recommendations for further research

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Part I. Introduction
1. Introduction to the research project
This research project was carried out during the internship at Deltares needed for the completion of
the master Environmental Policy in Wageningen. The focus of the research project was placed on
information management and information management systems due to my interest in the topic and
the progress which can be made by creating an information management system which addresses
several challenges inherent to the current practices of knowledge, information and data
management.
2. Problem description
The starting points for this research project are three observations done by Deltares:
1. In the past years, a lot of effort is put in systematic data management and results are more
and more implemented in daily practice.
2. Data leads to information and knowledge. Systematic information management and
knowledge management are far less developed than data management, mostly because of its
much greater complexity and diversity.
3. When Information management and/or knowledge management are undertaken, they are
almost always done within a certain context or towards a specific policy goal sometimes
making use of decision support systems. So far, little attention seems to be for structural and
systematic management so that information and knowledge can be stored, reused, shared
and build on. When a new context or a new policy goal arises, a lot of time and effort is
required to find available information and all too often the same information is duplicated.
These observations lead to research questions how systematic and reusable information
management can be done and how the gaps between data and information and between information
and knowledge can be bridged. Deltares believes that now data management is getting established,
the step towards systematic information management and knowledge management can be made.
State of the Environment (SotE) reporting for Lake Veere (Bekkenrapportage Veerse Meere) is getting
established, this is a step towards systematic compiling of water body knowledge. Rijkswaterstaat
Zeeland used to compile a SotE report every five years for each of the four large water bodies under
their management. The SotE report describes and explains the physical, morphological, water quality
and ecological developments over a period of 15 to 20 years. These comprehensive reports give
everyone working or going to work in a water body a flying start because of the completeness of the
overview. A second benefit lies in the five-year cycle which guarantees that the state of knowledge is
kept up-to-date.
A number of years ago, Rijkswaterstaat stopped the SotE reporting. At the same time, partly due to
retirement of long-time experts both at Deltares and at Rijkswaterstaat, knowledge gets dispersed

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and threatens to disappear. Deltares has experienced that studies cost more time, because the water
body knowledge needs to be build up from a lower level. The evaluation of the change in water level
management in 2009 required the description and evaluation of developments in Lake Veere. For
Rijkswaterstaat, this was an opportunity to assign Deltares to write a SotE report over a long period
(2000-2014). Deltares suggestion to use this study as a pilot for systematic information management
so that SotE reports can be kept up-to-date easily and efficiently and data, information and
knowledge of Lake Veere are systematically secured, was positively received by Rijkswaterstaat. A
pilot is due to start in 2016.
Several other, more general aspects, can be identified in relation to information management and
further solidify the need for a more organised method of information management.
People and organizations that need to work together rely on – generally large amounts of- data and
information for their daily business. They can run into several problems with the management of that
data and information, such as redundancy, outdated information, poor overview of available
information already in possession of the organization, and poor accessibility of the information and
data either inside or outside of the organization or both. Ever increasing amounts make it difficult to
keep track of up-to-date knowledge, information, and data already present in an organization or
other organizational entity. Firstly, this can lead to a lack of information or data in one area, as a lack
of oversight makes it hard to identify areas where additional monitoring should take place. Secondly,
it could also lead to an abundance of information or data in another research area. This can occur
when the information or data is needed quite often but hard to access through the current system. In
those cases people will have to gather the data anew and will add it to the database again. Methods
currently used to organize information and data can be hard to keep up to date which could result in
employees having to gather new information and data to have up to date information and data
available for reports and other purposes. Furthermore the information of one organization is also not
always open for use by other organizations. This could result in either a loss of money, by purchasing
the necessary data or information, or a loss of time, as the monitoring or research needs to be carried
out again to gather the necessary information.
Ample examples of the issues which the current information and data management practices pose
can be found in real life. For example, Deltares experiences several of the issues described in the
previous paragraph. The information system currently used by Rijkswaterstaat is not fully accessible
to both the employees and outsiders, such as Deltares, in need of the information. People may repeat
the collection and analysis of the same information anew, which is not only inefficient but also
impedes the process of expanding on available information. Also, a new analysis of data may lead to a
different interpretation. In itself, this is not necessarily bad, but awareness of differences in often
crucial for management and policy applications.
3. Aim of the research project
The aim of the research project is to provide recommendations for effective, efficient and sustainable
information management in complex, multi-party and multi-discipline processes or organizations. A
specific focus is on how an information management system can support such processes. The
recommendations will include methods to involve stakeholders in the process of creating the

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information management system, as well as recommendations for the lay-out of the information
management system. In this report, these recommendations will loosely target the creation of an
information management system to manage the knowledge and information pertaining to the SotE
for Lake Veere.
The main research question for this research project is:
• What is an information management system?
• Which recommendations can be given for the creation of an effective, efficient and
sustainable information management system?
The following sub-questions will be addressed in order to formulate recommendations for an
information management system. These three questions will be answered through multiple sub-
questions.
1. Which methods exist for the management and communication of information and
knowledge?
o How can information and knowledge be managed?
o How can information and knowledge be communicated?
2. Can a website be used as a platform for the information system?
o What are the advantages of using a website as opposed to a local system?
o How is information communicated through websites?
o Does something similar to a web-based information management system already
exist?
3. How should knowledge be communicated?
o How is knowledge currently communicated?
o How do the receivers experience the communication?
4. Which recommendations for the information management system can be given?
4. Methodology
The general topic of information management and information management systems is addressed
through several case studies and one literature study. Each case study is performed as a short
separate study and as such will have its own research questions and conclusion. However, the
conclusions from the case studies can be used to draw lessons from for the information management
system as all case studies are related to the topic of information management, knowledge
management or knowledge communication. This variety of case studies will ensure that the broad
topic of information management is explored and allows for the formulation of recommendations for
the set-up of an information system.

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Angle 1: theoretical
The literature study provides the starting point for this research project as well as providing
theoretical grounding for the case studies. The literature study addresses the definitions of data,
information, and knowledge, how information and knowledge can be managed, and how information
and knowledge can be communicated to others. This is done by approaching information
management and information management from three distinct angles. The literature study is found in
Part II of this report.
Angle 2: technical
The first angle consists of three case studies. The first case study investigates informational websites
about the North Sea. The information system will partially, or completely, consist of a website to
ensure accessibility to more individuals and from more locations. The case study is used to illuminate
how information is conveyed through websites and which common elements, in lay-out or type of
information provided, can be identified. These commonalities can be used to draw lessons from
which can be applied to the website for an information management system. The second case study
involves an investigation of information systems, such as geographic information systems, to identify
existing aspects of the information management system as envisioned by Deltares. The third case
study looks into the use of R markdown for the use of reproducible reporting. These case studies are
found in Part III.
Angle 3: personal
The third angle focusses on the communication of information and knowledge. This is done by taking
three examples of knowledge communication and assessing whether this meets the needs of the
individuals being communicated with. The three examples chosen are the methods used by the VNSC
to communicate with other stakeholders, the lunch lectures organised by Deltares to spread
knowledge among employees, and the serious game Port of the Future which can be used to
communicate and create knowledge in a variety of settings. The conclusions drawn from this case
study can be incorporated into the recommendations for an information management system as
communication will be part of an efficient information management system. Some knowledge or
information might be conveyed more efficiently through personal contact and communication with
stakeholders should also play a large role during the set-up of an information management system.
These case studies are found in Part IV.
5. Reading guide
The research questions will be answered through a literature study, an internet search, interviews,
and several case studies. The literature study will be addressed in Part II and will provide background
and definition for the concepts knowledge, information and data. It will briefly outline some principles
for the management of knowledge and information management. Part III focusses on the possibility
of using a website as the basis for the information management system. This will be done through an
internet search of North Sea websites to assess the suitability of websites to convey information as
well as identifying which aspects facilitate the transfer of information. Several other information and
data system are investigated to assess whether an information management system as envisioned by

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Deltares already exists or partially exists. Part III also includes a case study into reproducible reporting
and whether this would be a valuable addition to the information management system. Part IV
provides an overview of knowledge communication methods currently in use and the communication
methods desired by stakeholders. Part V provides the conclusions and recommendations for further
research. In the conclusions the guidelines which can be provided for the set-up of an information
management system for Lake Veere will be presented.

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Part II. Theoretical Basis
This part is based on a literature study performed to gather additional information on the
knowledge/information management as well as possible transfer and communication methods.
Several of the research questions, as posed in the introduction, are answered in this chapter. These
questions are:
• Which methods exist for the management and communication of information?
o How is information managed?
o How is information communicated?
Before answering the main research question the sub-questions will be answered first. The
conclusions which can be drawn from the answers to the sub-questions along with additional
information presented, will be used to reflect on the main research question at the end of this part of
the research project.
The information necessary for answering the research questions posed above has been gathered
through a literature study. The literature study was used to create the theoretical framework
presented below. This theoretical framework will serve as the basis for the development of an
information management system as well as for finding methods to involve stakeholders in the process
of creating an information management system. The keywords used during this literature study
where: knowledge, information, information management, knowledge management, and knowledge
communication. The articles used in the literature study received a tag depending on the topic
covered by the article and was placed in a file with articles addressing similar topics. This allows for
easy retrieval of the document if necessary.
The different aspects of definitions, preparation, management, and transfer will be discussed in
separate chapters. This part will be concluded by a conclusion which will summarise the findings of
the previous chapters.
1. Definition of knowledge, information and data
In the following paragraph the definitions of data, information and knowledge are provided. These
are crucial for the understanding of knowledge and how it can be managed.
1. Data is considered to be objective facts or observations, such as field or lab measurements,
monitoring results, which lack any specific meaning because it is without context and
interpretation.
2. Information is data that has been processed for a purpose which adds meaning and value to
the data.
3. Knowledge (builds on) is a combination of data/information to which expert opinion, skills,
and experience are added which results in knowledge that conveys understanding,
experience, accumulated learning and expertise.
These definitions are adapted from the work done by Rowley (Rowley, 2007).

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This list of definitions presents information and knowledge as two static and completely separate
concepts. In theory this split between information and knowledge is possible but in the practice the
differences between information and knowledge are not as clear cut. Knowledge is built on
information by adding a layer of skills and experience, this adding of elements to information makes it
difficult to pinpoint when information becomes knowledge and it can be assumed that this would
depend on the individual. Furthermore, knowledge can be codified or personified to communicate
the knowledge. Knowledge is sometimes said to be turned back into the information once it has been
through the codification or personification methods. Information which consists of personified or
codified knowledge will be referred to as enhanced information. The term enhanced information has
been chosen as this reflects the fact that this information is based on knowledge which adds the
aspects of skill and experience to information.
The definition of knowledge can be further split apart into tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge.
Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is difficult to transfer from one person to another by means of
writing it down or verbalising it (Dalkir, 2005). Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is ingrained in the
individual and is harder to isolate and thus harder to transfer to others. Tacit knowledge consists of
beliefs, ideals, values, schemata and mental models which are deeply ingrained and often taken for
granted. This means that tacit knowledge is based on personal values and experiences and has been
gained and perfected over the years. For example, the senior advisor knows when to use which
models, how to run those models and which conclusion can be drawn without being able to
sufficiently explain why this particular model is selected or why the steps that are taken are taken
other than the fact that this is the usual procedure. In case something goes wrong the senior advisor
can improvise due to the experience with the model and possible problems that could arise. In the
field of knowledge management tacit knowledge refers to knowledge possessed by a single person
and difficult to communicate to others using words and symbols. Tacit knowledge is commonly
described as know how. Effective transfer of this type of knowledge generally requires a more
personal approach such as extensive contact, regular interactions, and trust.
Table 1: Characteristics of tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge (Dalkir, 2005)

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Explicit knowledge is knowledge that can be readily articulated, codified, accessed, and verbalised and
often comes in the form of text, audio recordings or images. It can easily be transmitted to others.
Explicit knowledge is often described as being know what. All forms of explicit knowledge can be
stored in media but the medium that is most effective will depend on the type of information. Some
types of information are best stored in a format such as books whereas other information are more
suitable for storage in models or prototypes. In contrast to tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge can,
quite easily, be converted into enhanced information and be transferred to others. To stick with the
example provided previously, an intern would be able to explain why the particular model is chosen
and why those particular steps must be followed since the intern is not completely familiar with the
model yet and consciously thinks about the steps that need to be taken. If a problem were to arise
the intern might not know how to solve the problem due to the lack of experience with the model
and the possible causes for the problem. Knowledge management solutions have proven to be most
effective in this type of knowledge as it is easier to capture, store and disseminate explicit knowledge,
particularly through the use of lessons learned and best practices (Dalkir, 2005). It must be noted that
a sliding scale exists between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Some individuals have an easier
time expressing ideas or concepts than others, what is explicit for some might be tacit for others
(Dalkir, 2005). It must be noted that more tacit knowledge tends to have a higher value due to the
layers of experience and personal skill added to it.
Since both tacit and explicit knowledge need to be communicated it is important to understand the
characteristics of both types of knowledge. The different characteristics of tacit and explicit
knowledge will necessitate different methods of communication. The different strategies which exist
for managing, and preparing both tacit and explicit knowledge will be described below along with the
consequences for the information system.
2. Strategies to prepare knowledge for transfer
In order for knowledge to be communicated it must be prepared for transfer in a specific way so that
the receiver can understand the knowledge communicated and which allows the provider to
communicate the piece of knowledge effectively. Two main strategies can be identified.
The first strategy is personalisation. Personalisation involves providing individuals with the necessary
tacit knowledge with means to identify and communicate with other experts to convey this
knowledge. The personalisation strategies can take the form of workshops, Skype calls, regular
meetings, or other methods were personal contact is a central component. This particular strategy is
appropriate for the project since personalisation can be used for the dissemination of knowledge.
Knowledge can be conveyed during expert meetings where attendees can learn from each other or by
organising workshops. However, organising expert meetings or workshops for every piece of
knowledge or information is not feasible. Due to this further strategies need to be incorporated into
the project.
Codification is the second strategy identified. Codification entails packaging the knowledge into
formats that facilitate knowledge transfer. This strategy fits more closely with the goal of this project
as the aim is to convey the necessary knowledge to understand measurements and their
consequences without the use of personal contact between individuals. If personal contact is

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necessary to convey the necessary knowledge notes should be taken or the interaction can be filmed
to document the lessons learned and other important information.
Codification can be achieved in several ways:
• Knowledge (such as modelling procedures or parameters) can be encoded in formulas, codes,
expert systems, budget information. As an example, Deltares could codify the modelling
procedures, parameters, or knowledge of natural systems.
• Expressing it in natural language formats such as reports, memos, or policies.
• Embedding knowledge in physical objects such as prototypes or technologies or depositing it
in employees who can transfer the knowledge between units.
Codification is described by Hansen et. al. as developing technologies or depositing knowledge in
interview guides, work schedules, benchmark data, and market segment analyses out of documents
and storing them in the electronic repository for further use (Hansen, et al., 1999) Applied to the Lake
Veere knowledge/information system this would result in the storage of the necessary knowledge to
interpret the data/information, what this would mean for policy (current or to be made), the public,
etc. as well as possible lessons learned from the process. This particular approach allows people to
retrieve and search for the enhanced information without needing to contact the individual who
originally had the knowledge (Hansen, et al., 1999). To codify the knowledge a shared language and
model needs to be created to facilitate the flow of knowledge. When the codification language and
model have been created a so called code book can be said to exist. This code book contains all of the
codified knowledge, this could take the form of a filing cabinet full of reports, a digital folder full of
maps, or in the case of this research paper the information system. The knowledge stored in this code
book can be drawn upon to use as the user sees fit. This use of the knowledge will result in new
knowledge, which can then be added to the code book to increase the amount of enhanced
information and information contained within the book (Cohendet & Steinmueller, 2000).
Two key methods have been identified which can be used to prepare knowledge for transfer. Namely:
codification and personification. Codification is the strategy most suited for the preparation of explicit
knowledge as codification relies on capturing the knowledge in text, diagrams, or formulas. Since
explicit knowledge is easier to articulate it is also easier to capture in text, diagrams, formulas or other
methods. The information system will need to able to include those codified pieces of tacit knowledge
to efficiently and effectively convey the knowledge to the user of the information system. Tacit
knowledge is best prepared for transfer through the use of personal strategies. Since one on one
communication with the holder of the knowledge is not possible the tacit knowledge needs to be
conveyed some other way. In the case of the information system the tacit knowledge could be
personified through video explanations of concepts or through the taping of conferences as these
provide additional context and allow for a more in depth explanation. This does mean that the
information system should be able to incorporate several different kinds of formats.
3. Strategies for knowledge management
Schulz and Jobe (Schulz & Jobe, 2001) distinguish between two distinct knowledge management
strategies, focused and unfocused knowledge management. Focused knowledge management

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strategists specialise on specific forms of codification for each type of knowledge. Each type of
knowledge has its own codification method, technology related knowledge could be codified using
formulas and prototypes whereas marketing related knowledge is codified using text based forms.
Unfocused knowledge management strategists do not utilise such a planned approach and several
forms of codification are used resulting in codification that is employs all forms more or less equally.
Table 2 details the two management strategies in regards to the codification strategies and tacitness
or personalisation strategies used by each. This leads to four strategies in total. A codification strategy
for unfocused strategists, resulting in knowledge encoded in different forms without regard for the
suitability of those forms. A tacitness/personalisation strategy for unfocused strategists would result
in no or very little encoded knowledge. The codification strategy for focussed strategists results in
knowledge that is encoded in forms that facilitate flow most efficiently. The tacitness/personalisation
strategy for the focussed strategists focusses around the avoidance of codification in forms that could
result in accidental knowledge transfer and instead in forms that permit sufficient flows within the
organisation (Schulz & Jobe, 2001). Accidental knowledge transfer could occur, for example, by
forgetting confidential papers aboard the train or by forwarding an email to an unauthorised recipient
The focussed approach has several advantages over the unfocussed approach. The focussed approach
requires less diversity of skill in codifying, distributing and decoding of knowledge as fewer forms of
codification are used. Furthermore, the developed codification tools can be applied and reused
throughout the organisation. This ability of the codification tools to be reused and applied throughout
the organisation would be an interesting aspect of a knowledge/information system as it would allow
Rijkswaterstaat to apply the system to its entire organisation and ensure the growth of the knowledge
contained within the information system. The use of one method of codification also reduces
redundancy of information as well as the possibility of discrepancies between the different encoded
forms.
In the case of Lake Veere the knowledge/information system both the focussed and unfocussed
approaches have a place. Due to the aim of the information system, different organisations and
individuals will be able to add different types of material, which in turn means that multiple types of
Table 2: Characteristics of unfocused and focused strategies (Schulz and Jobe, 2001)

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codification will be necessary. To preserve the knowledge it needs to be codified into a format that
retains these properties. This means that the format of codification can differ between the different
types of knowledge or information. This would mean that on the individual level, the
knowledge/information level, the approach will be unfocussed. All the provided information will be
compiled into the knowledge base. To ensure compatibility of the information a certain format needs
to be used when adding certain information to the information system. In this particular case both
the focused and unfocussed approach will be implemented, the codification of the individual pieces
of information will be unfocussed whereas the entire information system will be focused.
The focused and unfocussed management strategies both will need to be employed to ensure the
proper functioning of the information system. Since the type of knowledge contained in the
information system can vary largely it is important to allow all methods of codification. Different types
of knowledge require different methods of codification. Using different codification methods is a
characteristic of the unfocussed approach to knowledge management and for this particular reason
should be included in the information system. Ensuring compatibility of the explicit knowledge
contained in the information management system should be promoted and this can be best achieved
through the use of regulated codification methods. To combine these two management strategies
guidelines could be set up to govern the codification of information. Setting up guidelines for each
type of codification should ensure that all codified information of the same type is compatible with
each other.
4. Strategies for knowledge transfer
Van Kerkhoff and Lebel (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006) identify several methods of knowledge transfer.
The authors make a between the conventional view and the unconventional view, both views use
different methods to transfer information. The conventional view is characterised by the idea that the
interaction between science and policy is unproblematic and that knowledge will end up in the right
hands without interference by the scientific community. The unconventional view recognises that the
interaction between science and policy is defined by external factors such as the social construction
of knowledge or the relation between knowledge and power. The methods advocated by the
unconventional view aim to take these external factors into account by redesigning the interactions
between science and policy communities. The methods used in the unconventional view rely less on
the belief that knowledge will end up in the right place and make both communities take a more
active stance towards creating scientific knowledge and uses for the knowledge.
The methods associated with the conventional view play a large role in the communication between
science and policy communities and will likely play a large role in an information management system
due to the fact that personal interaction is difficult to realise when using an information management
system. However, an information management system can be used to facilitate personal contact
between users by providing contact details or a calendar with upcoming events pertaining to
information contained within the system.
Trickle down and transfer and translate are the two most widely used conventional methods. The
trickle down method is based on the idea that once the knowledge is produced by the scientific
community the knowledge will end up in the hands of the people that are best served by this

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knowledge (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). The input of the scientific community in the communication
of the knowledge is minimal. The input of the policy community on the knowledge produced is
likewise minimal. The transfer and translate method is largely similar apart from the fact that the
scientific community translates the scientific knowledge into a language that is easier to understand
by the recipients of the knowledge (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). It is mentioned that these methods
tend to apply well to narrow, straightforward, and technically defined issues where there is no need
to create consensus on the problem and its solutions.
As mentioned these methods apply well to communication about problems that are well-defined and
have a clear problem and solution. However, the problems faced by the policy community are not
always as clear cut. In some cases the amount of stakeholders involved make it difficult to come to a
consensus about the problem and its solution (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). The external factors, such
as personal, political and organisational values and the association between knowledge and power,
should also be taken into account when making decisions that have large impacts on the
stakeholders. In these cases different forms of communication must be used. The unconventional
methods all aim to involve the stakeholders in the knowledge production process instead of
communicating the results after the research has been completed (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006).
The methods advocated by the unconventional world view are characterised by the inclusion of other
actors in the process of knowledge production. Participation involves including lay-people into the
research or policy process. This participation of lay-people ensures that a wider background is
represented during the research and policy process and the concerns and preferences can be better
integrated (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). Integration takes the idea of participation a step further by
increasing the scale. Integration aims to involve actors across jurisdictions, across scales, and across
the user and producer spheres (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). Learning focusses on learning from
others through the use of codification and personification methods to relay the knowledge to others.
This method also promotes the idea of adaptive management which suggests that policy measures
should be seen as experiments which should be assessed and monitored to promote learning from
real-life examples (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). Negotiation takes into account that researchers are
also political actors and provides methods in which different interests can be considered. The method
relies on sharing the power inherent to the production of knowledge and identifies three ways to do
this: advocacy coalitions, boundary work, and mode 2 research. All of these ways promote the
involvement of researchers in the policy process and the involvement of other actors in the research
process, and to demarcate the area under research in order to come to solutions that are acceptable
to all actors involved (van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006).
The methods associated with the conventional view as well as the methods associated with the
unconventional view should be included in the information management system. The methods used
by the conventional view can be used to convey simple, and value free, information and data. This
type of information lends itself best to these methods as these methods send the information out and
leaves it for the interested user to find. If the information is easy to understand this method should
pose no problem. A web-based system could be used to provide the information by using either the
trickle down method or the transfer and translate. Both of these methods can be used, the transfer
and translate method can be used to provide the most pertinent information in an easier to

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understand way. The trickle down method can then be used to provide the interested parties with
additional, or more in depth, information.
One, or more, of the methods associated with the unconventional view should be included as well.
The aspect of personification, learning from others, is heavily represented in these particular
methods. Since some types of knowledge or information are best conveyed through personal contact
the unconventional methods would make a good addition to the information management system.
The unconventional methods can be used to convey more sensitive or complex information. It is
possible, for example, to use the learning method to provide knowledge to lay-people or actors with a
different expertise. The integration or negotiation methods can be used to create joint knowledge or
reach decisions with multiple stakeholders.
The methods relying on direct input from all actors are not suitable for the use in a web-based
information system due to the fact that the knowledge and information is placed on the website and
personal interaction with the knowledge producers is not possible. This would mean that the
information management system will consist of a web-based part as well as a part to facilitate
personal contact.
5. Conclusions
The definitions that will be used for data, information, knowledge are:
1. Data is considered to be objective facts or observations, such as field or lab measurements,
monitoring results, which lack any specific meaning because it is without context and
interpretation.
2. Information can be split between information and enhanced information:
2.1.Information is data that has been processed for a purpose which adds meaning and value to
the data.
2.2.Enhanced information is codified or personified knowledge. Codifying or personifying
knowledge turns that knowledge back into information. The term enhanced information has
been chosen to denote the added layers of complexity inherent to knowledge captured in
the information.
3. Knowledge is split between explicit and tacit knowledge:
3.1.Explicit knowledge is knowledge which can readily be articulated, codified, assessed and
verbalised. It is heavily based on knowing what as opposed to the knowing how of tacit
knowledge.
3.2.Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is ingrained in the individual and is based on information
to which skill, experience, values, etc. have been added. This type of knowledge is often
characterised as knowing how.
Information can be managed in two distinct ways: using a focused approach or an unfocussed
approach. The focused approach provides a few codification or personification methods to be used

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when managing information, whereas the unfocussed approach allows for the individual to select the
method they deem best resulting in a large array of codification and personification methods used.
The focused strategy is the recommended strategy to be used in an information management system.
Selecting a few codification and personification methods means that the system can be optimised to
accommodate these methods. Furthermore, the uniformity of the methods ensures that the
information included, even from different sources, is compatible to each other. To facilitate this
guidelines can be created to help users with the codification or personalisation of the information.
The information can be communicated using several methods. The methods used depend on the type
of information to be communicated as well as the medium through which it will be communicated.
Methods associated with the conventional view of knowledge communication depend on placing the
information somewhere where interested parties can find it. This works best when the information is
value free and relatively simple. A website is a medium that is suitable for these methods and this
type of information. The methods associated with the unconventional view rely on the inclusion of
others to transfer information. These methods are better suited to convey more sensitive or complex
information. It is likely that simple as well as complex information needs to be conveyed by an
information management system. For this reason it is recommended to include both methods from
the conventional and the unconventional views in an information management system.

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Part III. Technical Aspects
This part is based on three case studies. These case studies are both conducted through the use of a
web search. The first case study focused on websites as a method to convey information. The second
case study looks into current web based information management systems. The third case study
investigates the use of R markdown for reproducible reporting.
These three case studies are used to address the technical aspects of conveying information and the
aspects of a web based information management system.
1. Lessons learned from North Sea informational websites
This first chapter is based on the case study of informational websites set up to educate users about
the North Sea. The research questions addressed by this case study are:
• Can a website be used as a platform for the information system?
o Can websites be used to convey information effectively?
o How is information communicated through websites?
The aim is to find commonalities between the websites. These commonalities between the websites
are used to draw lessons from. These lessons will be used to formulate guidelines for an information
management system as well determining whether websites are suited for conveying information to
the user.
The decision was made to focus on the North Sea as this is a broader area of study than just looking at
informational websites of Lake Veere or the Westerschelde. The websites were not restricted to
Dutch websites to get a broader set of websites to look and to be able to find commonalities shared
by a large amount of websites. Additional information on the creation of websites for different
intended users has been found using Google. This information was kept in mind when looking at the
informational websites as well as when drawing the conclusions.
The websites were gathered using Google search and the search terms Noordzee, North Sea,
Nordsee. These terms have led
1.1. Overview of the websites investigated
Dutch websites
In this section an overview of the Dutch websites pertaining to the North Sea will be provided along
with an assessment of the intended user as well as of the website itself.
Wikipedia:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noordzee
Wikipedia serves the function of an online encyclopaedia. For this reason the Wikipedia page for the
North Sea provides some basic information such as the location, the average depth, the geology, and
hydrography, as well as an overview of the flora and fauna, safety, preservation, and economy. The
page provides links for further reading and can be used to find additional search terms or research
topics. The page itself starts with a brief introduction followed by a table of contents to jump to

19. 19
different sections. The sections are demarcated by a header and paragraph headers. The information
provided is explained clearly and succinctly and where appropriate pictures are used to clarify further.
The page does not seem to be aimed at one particular type of user but rather at users that want a
quick overview of the most important features of the North Sea. The page is effective in providing the
information that the person is looking for since it allows for jumping to relevant topics and provides
links to related topics.
Stichting de Noordzee:
http://www.noordzee.nl/
The second website that can be found when searching for the term Noordzee on Google is the
website belonging to the Stichting de Noordzee. This organisation concerns itself with the
preservation of the nature in the North Sea. The website presents its topics through the use of
themes, nature, fishing, shipping, and waste. Each theme then presents how the organisation views
the topic and its goals in regards to these topics, linking to concrete projects. The website provides a
cursory introduction to the theme. For example the theme nature is introduced with a short overview
of the human pressures that impact the nature in the North Sea. This is then followed by the aims of
the organisation and the projects it is working on.
This website is most likely aimed at people wanting to preserve the nature in the North Sea since this
is all the information that the website provides. If the aim is to gather information about the North
Sea itself or to find more detailed information concerning waste problems in the North Sea the
website is not very suitable.
The layout of the website is clear and the themes can be easily found as well as additional information
about the organisation, events it is organising, etc.
Rijkswaterstaat:
http://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/water/feiten_en_cijfers/vaarwegenoverzicht/noordzee/
This website from Rijkswaterstaat provides an overview of the general location of the North Sea and
its size. The website details the shipping routes across the North Sea with detailed information on the
amount of ships entering Dutch harbours as well as detailed information on the shipping routes
themselves. It also provides some information on the other infrastructures present in the North Sea
such as internet cables. The page provides links to other pages, for example reinforcement of the
dykes or coastal maintenance. However, these pages are not as detailed as the page linked to in this
document.
This website presents clear information which is supplemented with pictures when appropriate. It is
not clear who the intended user of this page is but the information provided seems most relevant for
professionals in the shipping industry or people interested in the infrastructure in and along the North
Sea.
Willem Wever:
http://www.willemwever.nl/vraag_antwoord/de-aarde/hoe-diep-de-noordzee

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This website answers the question about the depth of the North Sea as well as providing some other
relevant information, such as the ecosystem on the sea floor. The page also elaborates on the history
of the North Sea. At the bottom of the page links are provided to pages that hold additional related
information. The information is divided up into smaller sections containing factual information written
in an easily understood way.
This website is aimed at children and is characterised by the use of bright blue and orange headers for
the information and the large icons. These icons and headings draw the attention to the different
sections of the page and additional other pages that can be looked at. The information is factual but
provided in a way that is easier for children to understand and use.
Ecomare:
http://www.ecomare.nl/nl/ecomare-encyclopedie/gebieden/noordzee/noordzee-algemeen/
The Ecomare website presents an encyclopaedia like overview of the North Sea. It provides a short
introduction with the location as well as its economic importance and natural richness. It provides an
overview of the depth of the North Sea, further illustrated using a cross section. It details the water
supply of the North Sea along with prevalent natural processes.
The intended user of the website is not clear. The page is laid out with bright colours to notify the
viewer of other sections of the website. However, the information provided is more specific and
technical than the information provided by the Willem Wever website. The length of the pieces of
information is short and provides the most necessary information and provides a very basic overview
of the topic.
Wikikids:
http://www.wikikids.nl/Noordzee
This website gives a very brief overview of the North Sea. It has some pictures that make the site
more appealing to children. The information provided is very basic and easy to understand. The page
itself does not provide a lot of information but links to other aspects mentioned can provide more
detailed information.
Spreekbeurten info:
http://spreekbeurten.info/noordzee.html
This website provides basic information concerning the North Sea. The basic information includes
pollution, characteristics of the North Sea such as tides and salt water, flora and fauna, and a little
section dedicated to Greenpeace. Several pictures are provided where appropriate. The information
provided is not very detailed but serves in providing a basic overview of the aforementioned aspects.
The intended user of this website is primary school children who are preparing a presentation on the
North Sea. The website covers the most important aspects as well as providing some additional links
to other topics that could be of interest.
Geologie van Nederland:
http://www.geologievannederland.nl/fossielen/vindplaatsen/noordzee

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This particular website provides a detailed overview of the history of the North Sea. It provides some
information on the North Sea in general and more detailed information about some specific locations
in the North Sea. The website does not seem to be specifically aimed at children but it is presented in
such a way that almost any user can understand the information presented. Links to additional
websites and books are provided for users interested in more detailed information.
The information presented is easy to understand and the lay-out of the website is clear. A table of
contents is provided which allows for jumping to different sections.
Rijksoverheid
http://www.noordzeeloket.nl/projecten/noordzee-natura-2000/
The Rijksoverheid website provides infromation about the North Sea in conjunction with Natura 2000.
The first page provides information about Natura 2000 and the reasons for the implementation of this
directive. Links on the left hand side of the page provide more detailed information about the nature
2000 areas in the North Sea and the current policy, for example. Several links to downloads are
provided, these downloads contain the Natura 2000 policy as well as policy concerning the North Sea
among others.
The intended users of this website are most likely people that want to know more about Natura 2000
and the North Sea. The information that is provided is quite basic and thus serves as a good starting
point for the search for additional and more in depth knowledge of the subject.
English Websites
In this section an overview of the English websites pertaining to the North Sea will be provided along
with an assessment of the intended user as well as of the website itself.
Wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea
This Wikipedia is comparable to the Dutch Wikipedia page about the North Sea. This page provides
largely the same information as an encyclopaedia entry would. It provides information on the
location, the geology, hydrology, and the uses of the North Sea among other topics.
The website is not aimed at a particular user and instead aims to provide basic information and allow
for further searching, using either the links embedded in the text or the references at the bottom of
the page. The table of contents provided at the top of the page allows for easy navigation to the
sections of interest.
World Atlas:
http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/northsea.htm
This webpage serves the same purpose as a conventional atlas. It shows a map with the location of
the North Sea as well as providing a text based description of the location along with a short
description of the most important shipping routes.
The intended user is someone who wants a quick overview of the location of the North Sea. Not much
else can be learned from this website as it consists of a map and a very small block of text.

22. 22
Britannica:
http://www.britannica.com/place/North-Sea
Another encyclopedia like entry. It provides the location of the North Sea as well as its size, and its
connection of other seas and oceans. The economical and historical importance of is briefly touched
upon. A section is dedicated to the physical features of the sea with separate paragraphs for the
geology, physiography, hydrology, and climate. The economic aspects where briefly touched upon in
the introduction and expanded upon further in on the page. Again this section is broken up into
paragraphs to discuss the different aspects. The aspects discussed range from fisheries, to oil and gas,
to the impact of human activity. The piece concludes with a brief section on study and exploration of
the North Sea.
The intended user of the website is a person who would like to know some basic information about
the North Sea. The page touches upon the different aspects of the North Sea such as its geology and
economic importance as well as identifying the human pressures and the research done. The page
itself is broken up into three different pages and provides a table of contents on the left to allow
skipping to the sections of interest. The information provided is useful for a wide range of people
since the text is easy to understand and focusses on the main points of the piece.
North Sea region EU:
http://www.northsearegion.eu/
This link leads to a website for the North Sea Region which creates programmes to create greater
cooperation across the North Sea Region. No actual information on the North Sea itself is provided.
Duitse sites
In this section an overview of the German websites pertaining to the North Sea will be provided along
with an assessment of the intended user as well as of the website itself.
Wikipedia:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordsee
This Wikipedia is comparable to the Dutch Wikipedia page about the North Sea. This page provides
largely the same information as an encyclopaedia entry would. It provides information on the
location, the geology, hydrology, and the uses of the North Sea among other topics.
The website is not aimed at a particular user and instead aims to provide basic information and allow
for further searching, using either the links embedded in the text or the references at the bottom of
the page. The table of contents provided at the top of the page allows for easy navigation to the
sections of interest.
Hamsterkiste:
http://www.hamsterkiste.de/040/Nordsee/nordsee.html
This page provides a brief introduction about the North Sea and the activities that can take place
along its shore, this leads up to more in depth information about the North Sea. These topics are each
discussed on a separate page and are accompanied by maps or pictures where appropriate. The
topics range from the location, to the tides, to the islands, and the beach, among other topics.

23. 23
This website is heavily focussed on children as can be seen from the layout of the page and the
language used in the piece. For example, the activities provided in the introduction are activities that
children can relate to such a building sand castles or collecting shells. At the end of each section
questions are provided that can be answered using the text on that particular page. From this it can
be assumed that the page is heavily focussed on educating children and is most likely used during
school lessons.
Planet wissen:
http://www.planet-wissen.de/wissen_interaktiv/nordsee.jsp
This page is an interactive website in which the user accompanies an explorer in a submarine. Using
this premise several subjects, all focussed on the fauna in the North Sea, are touched upon. When a
subject of interest is located on the screen the subject can be clicked on which opens a window with
information. Short films are included that provide additional information on the subject.
The website is aimed at children and aims to provide information concerning the fauna in the North
Sea. The page does this through the use of an interactive website which would make the page more
engaging and accessible to children. The inclusion of videos to provide further information is a good
way of providing more information in an accessible way.
Spiegel:
http://www.spiegel.de/thema/nordsee/
This website has a theme dedicated to the North Sea, this is used to cluster all of the news articles
concerning the North Sea in one location. This website cannot be used to find basic information about
the North Sea but does provide information about recent developments.
The intended user of this website is someone looking for specific information about the North Sea or
specific news articles related to the North Sea.
Belgian Websites
In this section an overview of the Belgian websites pertaining to the North Sea will be provided along
with an assessment of the intended user as well as of the website itself.
Beheerseenheid van het Mathematisch Model van de Noordzee:
http://www.mumm.ac.be/NL/NorthSea/facts.php
This website provides an encyclopaedia like overview of the North Sea. Some facts are presented
through the use of a table. The location of the North Sea is provided through a text based description
as well as through the use of a map. Additional information about topics such as fishing and harmful
substances can be found using the links provided on the left hand side of the page.
The information provided is basic but with enough detail to gain a good overview of the topic. The
intended user is someone who wants to get some basic information about the North Sea, other than
this there is no clear intended user of the site.

24. 24
1.2. Commonalities between informational websites
Many of the informational websites use clear language and a simple lay out to focus the attention on
the information presented. This is supported by documents detailing the creation of websites for
professionals. The language should be clear and concise. The content of the first page provided a very
general overview of the North Sea with links to further information. This method aligns with some of
the theory that has been found in regards to designing websites for professionals. Theory mentioned
that professionals do not mind to navigate through the website to gather additional information if
necessary.
The websites also use pictures to make the website look more appealing and to convey information
which is easier to express through the use of a picture. All websites, for example, provided a map to
show the location of the North Sea. Map or picture heavy pages followed a different lay-out than the
pages providing a more encyclopaedic overview of the North Sea. The encyclopaedic pages placed the
text in the middle of the screen with the left and right hand sides received for pictures. Links to
further information were kept in a list placed on either the right of left side of the page, with the left
side being most common. The map or picture heavy websites used a different system. These websites
used a tabbed system with the tabs providing further information placed horizontally at the top of the
page. This particular lay-out ensures that a larger part of the screen can be dedicated to map or
picture. The increased amount of space available means that the map or picture displayed can be
larger which increases the amount of information which can be conveyed as well as being more
aesthetically pleasing.
To make the information system appealing to a wide range of users, both in profession and age, the
first page should be easily accessible by the different groups. This means using clear and concise
language to the get the basic concepts across. This can be supplemented with pictures and graphs to
further visualise the information presented. Using links in the text or at the end of the page additional
and more in depth content can be linked. This way interested parties can easily find more detailed
information while keeping the page accessible to a large amount of different users.
To engage children and other younger users it might be interesting to create interactive graphs or
other visual representations. For example, the food web, which consists of multiple bubbles
interlinked, could be made interactive. By clicking on a bubble a short explanation can be given along
with how it interacts with other aspects. For older users, or more knowledgeable users, the abilities of
the visualisations can be adjusted accordingly. For example, changing the presence of one aspect and
receiving feedback on the consequences for the other aspects. More in depth knowledge could also
be provided.
It might also be possible to create a landing page from where the user can select the most fitting
profile and from there arrive on a website catered to that specific group. This would help to ensure
that the website meets the most important needs of that group. Alternatively, the website could
automatically redirect to the profile fitting most closely to the user.
The most important lessons which can be learned is that the users should be provided with the most
basic information first and should be provided with links to more detailed information. Older users do
not mind clicking links on the webpage to find further information, since the intended users are all

25. 25
professionals this preference should be kept in mind. By providing links to further information the
user is also able to find more detailed information in the area of interest without having to spend
time on irrelevant information. The differences in lay-out should also be taken into account. Since the
information management system will convey information in different formats the lay-out of the
system should be well thought out to ensure that each method will be able to convey the information
in the most effective and efficient way possible.
1.3. Conclusions
Assessing the effectiveness of the websites is difficult as no framework was set-up to judge the
effectiveness. It can be concluded that websites most certainly can be used to convey information. It
can also be said that the effectiveness of this is influenced by the type of information and the lay-out
of the website. The use of a map to convey information is more effective when the map is larger, the
size of the map that can be accommodated depends on the lay-out of the website. Websites can
mostly easily convey information which can be captured in text and is easy to understand. Easy to
understand information can be conveyed more effectively as it does not need additional information
or clarification for the user to incorporate the information. Alternatively, websites can display videos
which can be used to provide information, such as an in depth explanation of a topic or a more
elaborate explanation of a topic. Depending on the information this could be a very effective way of
providing the information. The affectivity of the website thus depends on the type of information that
needs to be conveyed, the medium used to do this, and the suitability of the website to display that
particular medium.
The second question, how information is communicated through websites, can be answered more
directly. The majority of the websites communicate the information through the use of text. The
information provided is factual information and remains quite general, additional or more in depth
information can be found by clicking on the links provided. Maps, graphs, and pictures are also
common on the website. The graphs, maps, and pictures are used to clarify or illustrate the
information presented in the text.

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2. Existing information management systems
In this section the question:
• Does something similar to a web-based information management system already exist?
This question is addressed as it is important to know whether certain elements or a complete system
already exists. These elements could be used by Deltares to create an information management
system. The resources that are saved by using existing elements can be used to develop other aspects
of the information management system.
An internet search yielded several information systems and databases which are currently in use.
These are: expert systems, search engines, data warehouses, enterprise systems, geographic
information systems, and global information systems. These systems will be expanded upon below.
2.1. Description of existing systems
An expert system is a system that incorporates concepts gathered from experts in the field and uses
the knowledge provided by these experts to provide problem analysis to the users. The most common
form of this type of system is a computer program, with a specific set of rules, that analyses the
information provided and recommends a course of action based upon that information. Each expert
system is based on two principal parts: the knowledge base, and the inference engine. The knowledge
base of the system contains both factual knowledge, knowledge that is widely agreed upon and can
for example be found in text books, and heuristic knowledge, which is less rigorous, more
experiential, and often individualistic (seems to be similar to tacit knowledge) (Engelmore &
Feigenbaum, 1993). The system is easy to modify and due to this the system can be adapted to a wide
range of operating environments. It is possible to program the system in such a way that it can
improve the rules it operates on in the light of experience gained. Furthermore, it is possible to
incorporate fuzzy logic into the rules utilised by the system. Fuzzy logic introduces the concept of
uncertainty into the decision making process and will help to mimic real life decision making more
closely (Davies & Darbyshire, Unknown). Expert systems can be used for process monitoring and
control by analysing real-time data with the goal of noticing anomalies, predicting trends, etc.
Another function of the expert system could be knowledge publishing, the primary function of this is
to deliver knowledge that is relevant to the user’s problem (Engelmore & Feigenbaum, 1993).
These systems are interesting as they use available information and knowledge when
providing an answer. However, an information management system is not intended to be an expert
system. The expert system uses highly specialised information and enhanced information to provide
answers to very specific questions. An information system on the other hand contains a large amount
of information and enhanced information pertaining to a variety of fields to help the user find a
solution too many more problems and questions.
A geographic information system is a computer system used to capture, store, check, and display data
relating to positions on the Earth’s surface. This system has the ability to show multiple types of
information in one map. The advantage of this system is that multiple types of information can be
displayed on the map and the available information can be compared between locations.
Furthermore, it is possible to track changes over time and thus keep a track record of specific

27. 27
locations. A disadvantage of this system is the fact that it relies on maps which have different scales
and projections. These need to be calibrated to come to one overall map for the system to work
properly.
A geographic data system presents data through a map interface, this allows geographic
information system to provide all available data about a certain location. No interpretation of the data
in the form of information or enhanced information is provided. The lack of information and
enhanced information marks the difference between a geographic information system and an
information management system which aims to provide all available information and enhanced
information pertaining to a specified topic or topics.
A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and non-updatable collection of
data used in support of management decision-making processes (Bassil, 2012). The data warehouse
is subject-oriented since the data contained is structured in such a way that it reflects the business
structures of the organisation (Erdmann, 1997). This subject-oriented approach supports the
performance of analytical tasks and the production of knowledge. The integration aspect is the most
important aspect of the data warehouse; it integrates data stemming from multiple sources.
However, this does mean that all the information taken as input need to be formulated in a uniform
way. The time-variant aspect of the data warehouse is explained by the fact that it store both current
as well as historic data. This allows for the identification of trends and developments over time
(Erdmann, 1997). The data warehouse is non-updatable by the regular user; this prevents both data
loss and data redundancy. The data warehouse could function as one component of a knowledge
management system.
The idea behind a data warehouse corresponds with the idea behind an information
management system. It collects all the data pertaining to a specific topic similarly to the information
management system collecting all information about a certain topic. However, a data warehouse is
non-updatable whereas the information management system should be kept up to date and
preferably automatically to ensure that all existing information about the topic is included. The
methods used for storing and organising the data in a data warehouse could be used to provide the
basis for storing and organising the information in an information management system.
An enterprise system is a packaged application that supports and automates business processes and
manages business data. The enterprise system is a pre-made system that comes with customisable
modules that reflect the best practice for common business operations. The system gathers and
integrates different functional areas and keeps them consistent across the entire organisation. The
function of the enterprise system differs between organisations but the system can, for example, be
used for the generation of reports (Gulla, 2004). Specific information about an enterprise system is
difficult to find due to the fact that the enterprise systems are sold by businesses and involve a large
degree of customisability.
An enterprise system is not suitable to be used as an information management system as it
manages the data and business processes of companies. The information management system is used
to manage the information of multiple sources of data, information, and enhanced information.

28. 28
As can be seen from this overview several elements that have been identified as important for an
information management system already exist in other management systems. However, no system
incorporates all of these aspects. Deltares could use some of the aspects of the different system as
the basis for its own information management system. The functionalities of the data warehouse can
be used as the basis for the data storage aspect of the information management system,
incorporating the decision support tool of an expert system could add additional useful elements to
the information management system. Taking the aspects which already exists allows for more
resources to be spend on developing the functionalities that do not exist yet or have to be developed
on a case by case basis, such as the rules that the decision support system uses to operate or the
ability of the data base to up-date automatically periodically.
2.2. Conclusions on existing management systems
Several information systems are available which would meet part of the needs for the information
management system. The expert system seems to have potential due to the fact that the expert
system can aid in decision-making process by analysing the outcomes of specific policy measures, or
by identifying the most suitable option using a list of criteria. The data warehouse would be a good fit
for the information system due to the fact that it compiles all of the data and allows for specific
searching within the database. Furthermore, the data warehouse can be used to track trends and
signal changes which could be helpful for the intended users to keep track of changes. The different
needs are met by different information systems or databases, the information management system
could integrate the different aspects which meet the needs and provide an overall system which
meets the different needs thus providing a more efficient service than the other information systems
or databases.
3. Deltares wiki and reproducible reporting
The Eureka program at Deltares provided the opportunity to put some of the lessons learned about
information management into practice. The aim of this project is to investigate reproducible
reporting. The idea behind the reproducible reporting came from the SotE reports which were carried
out by Rijkswaterstaat but have since been discontinued. Rijkswaterstaat in Zeeland would like to
continue these reports as they provide an overview of the water bodies in the province. Reproducible
reporting was seen, by Deltares, as a partial solution to the problem of the discontinued SotEs. By
making the reports reproducible, by writing code which generates graphs based on the data available
and preloads certain pieces of text which do not change, the time and cost associated with the writing
of SotEs is decreased. This decrease in associated cost and time expenditure might help
Rijkswaterstaat to continue the periodic SotE reporting.

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3.1. Introduction to Lake Veere
The decision to use Lake Veere as a pilot for the
reproducible reporting system was based on two
main aspects. First of all, Deltares was commissioned
to evaluate the effects of the decision to artificially
raise the water level in Lake Veere. This evaluation
necessitated the collection of data and information,
during this process Deltares lost a considerable
amount of time and money due to the inaccessibility
of both the data and information. This problem is
encountered more often and Rijkswaterstaat has
expressed the wish to find a system to manage
information and data more efficiently. Since the data
and information, and the problems associated with
procuring information concerning Lake Veere are
fresh in the mind of Rijkswaterstaat and Deltares
make Lake Veere a very current case for the pilot of
a new information management system.
Lake Veere is limited in size and regulatory directives
and policies. Lake Veere is located in the province of
Zeeland, located between the islands of Noord-Beveland, Zuid-Beveland, and Walcheren. The lake
was created as part of the Delta works when several inlets to the sea where closed off, on the west
side of the lake lies the Veerse gatdam and the Zandkreekdam lies on the east side of the lake. The
lake contains several small uninhabited islands of which five are dedicated to birds. The most
important regulatory directives for Lake Veere are the Bird Directive and the Water Framework
Directive.
3.2. Reproducible reporting
R markdown was used as the program to create a reproducible report, the report itself is based on
the SotE of Lake Veere carried out by Deltares a couple of months prior. Each chapter has been made
into an R markdown document. This means that the unchanging pieces of text, such as a description
of Lake Veere before the Afsluitdam or the description of a measuring method, will be automatically
generated when exporting the R markdown document to a PDF, a word document, or an HTML site. R
markdown was also used to write scripts to generate graphs, such as bar graphs or box plots, from
the available data. When the data in this database is updated and the script for the graph is run again
the graph will automatically show the new data. This helps to ensure that the reports incorporate the
newest data available. The automatic generation of the graphs also ensures that the type of graph
used for those particular indicators stays consistent between the reports. R markdown allows for
code in blocks of texts as well which could be used to calculate the average amount of a substance in
the water body, for example. These aforementioned aspects help to cut back on the time needed to
when writing reports as a considerable amount of work can be done by R markdown.
These R markdown documents are quite easy to edit which means that the documents can be
optimised and new sections can be added when necessary. However, particular attention must be
Picture 1: Location of Lake Veere

30. 30
paid to the blocks of text in combination with in-text code or graphs, since the code and graphs can
change when new data is added it could happen that the description or sentence is not accurate
anymore. A second point that must be taken into account when using R markdown for reproducible
reporting is that R markdown must have access to the database from which it needs to pull the data
for the graphs. If R markdown cannot access this database the graphs cannot be made and the report
in its entirety will not be generated. R markdown has a steep learning curve but knowing how to use R
markdown on a basic level, such as formatting the document, adding in-text code, and creating
reproducible blocks of text, is easy to pick up. Creating graphs and adding more complex element
requires patience and good resources for learning. Organising workshops were basic R markdowns
skills are taught could be a partial solution to this problem.
The reports generated by R markdown were uploaded to the Deltares wiki as an investigation into
knowledge and information sharing. The use of the wiki is straightforward and quite easy to grasp.
Each page has an edit button which can be used to add text, links, pictures, graphs, etc. through the
use of macros. The macros ensure that the inserted aspects work well within confluence and can be
used to easily create a page that is appealing. The R markdown HTML documents were uploaded to
the wiki to assess the integration of these two systems. The HTML data can be loaded into the wiki
through the use of an HTML macro. This process is easy but the style from the HTML document will
have to be removed to ensure that it works within the wiki.
3.3. Conclusions
The use of R markdown is suitable for reproducible reporting since it is versatile and can be learned in
a limited amount of time. R markdown can be used to write script for a myriad of graphs which are
generated by the program based on the data that it has access to. R markdown can also be used to
generated pieces of text, this is especially valuable when unchanging text is included in the report.
It must be noted that some learning is involved when starting to use R markdown. Writing the code
for the graphs, or styling the lay-out of the document involves some knowledge of programming and
Picture 2: Screenshot of the Deltares wiki displaying chapter 5.4 of the SotE report generated by R
markdown.

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how R markdown functions as a program. These aspects are quite easy to learn and the code for
different graphs is largely uniform. During the pilot of R markdown a few hours of tutoring proved to
be sufficient for imparting enough knowledge to create a functioning R markdown document with
automated graphs. This leads to the conclusion that when R markdown, and reproducible reporting, is
used workshops should be organized to get the intended users familiar R markdown and teach them
the basic skills necessary. Appointing some people who are knowledgeable about R markdown as
tutors for others would also be necessary to ensure that all users can edit the document, write
additional pieces of code, and be able to keep the document functioning.
The wiki can be used to disclose the generated reports as it allows for easy uploading of the HMTL
reports created by R markdown. The lay-out of the wiki is quite easy to modify and can be set up in
such a way that the different chapters and parts of the report can be found easily. The wiki is also
easily accessible which ensures that all interested parties can view the report.
4. Conclusions
From the information presented it can be concluded that a website would make a good platform for
the information management system. The website can be used to provide factual information about
projects, natural systems, legislation, etc. The website should be used to convey information or
explicit knowledge as this is easy to capture in words or other types of media. The website could also
accommodate the entire database or provide links to the different databases included in the
information management system. Using the aspects identified in the previous section could help to
create a suitable lay-out for the website. However, websites are not as effective in conveying tacit
knowledge. For this reason a website should be part of an information management system instead
of the complete system.
Several information management systems already exist but these do not meet the needs as
introduced in the introduction to the research project. To come to an information management
system that meets these needs Deltares will have to develop several aspects, such as a method to
convey tacit knowledge, a method to keep the information and data up-to-date, and a method to
allow multiple users the same access and the same rights within the information management
system. The system should also be highly versatile as it aims to provide the users with the necessary
information that they need to answer their questions. The specialism of the different systems
described in chapter 2 thus do not meet the needs of the system but could be incorporated into the
system if deemed necessary.

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Part IV. Communication of information and knowledge
In this section different methods to communicate information and knowledge will be discussed. This
chapter is based on three case studies, the communication methods used by the VNSC to
communicate information to organisations and individuals, the use of lunch lectures by Deltares
spread project related information among employees, and the use of the serious game Port of the
Future to communicate knowledge between the participants and to create common knowledge.
The research questions central to this investigation are:
• How can knowledge be communicated?
o How is knowledge currently communicated?
o How do the receivers experience the communication?
The questions will be answered through the use of interviews as interviews allow for a more in depth
discussion of the communication methods and whether these meet the needs of the organisation or
individual being communicated with. The interviews followed the semi-structured format as this
allows for a comparison between the interviews while retaining the freedom to follow interesting
leads. Comparison between the interviews is valuable as it allows for distinguishing between the
needs of different groups, identifying these differences is useful as this can then be used to format
the communication strategies employed when conveying information as part of an information
management system or when communicating with stakeholders during the creation of an information
management system. The freedom to follow interesting leads during the interview is preferred as it
allows for the exploration of interesting viewpoints through the use of follow up questions not
accounted for during the set-up of the interview.
1. Communication strategies employed by the VNSC
This case study focussed on the communication strategies employed by the VNSC to communicate
system knowledge to other organisations and actors. Since the VSNC is facilitates cooperation
between the Netherlands and Flanders in regards to governing the Schelde estuary good
communication methods are necessary. The historical and cultural context of the Schelde estuary
make a good communication strategy all the more important. Communication can be used to allow
stakeholders input in the policy decisions made which is necessary in the Schelde estuary where a
variety of needs and wishes for the estuary exist. The aim of the project was to evaluate the
communication methods employed and if necessary provide recommendations for future
communication with stakeholders. Two research questions were set-up to guide the project:
• How do other actors experience the communication methods?
• How could the communication methods be improved?
Interviews were used to answer these two questions.

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1.1 Interview with de Levende Delta
De Levende Delta was the first organisation to be interviewed and this interview provided some
interesting insights into the communication between the VNSC and other organisations. The interview
with de Levende Delta focussed on the Emove project as this was the only instance of contact with
the VNSC that could be easily recalled. The Emove project focussed on creating knowledge about
maintaining European estuaries in a sustainable way. The Emove project included partners from
different European countries. De Levende Delta became involved in the project after it was started
and found it difficult to provide input. After several additional requests for more information de
Levende Delta felt secure enough to start participating in the project. At the end of the project de
Levende Delta stopped receiving updates on the status of the project, this was identified as an
omission. De Levende Delta would have preferred to receive some information about the status of
the Emove project even if that meant hearing that the project will not be continued. De Levende
Delta was highly motivated to continue with the work done during the Emove project and to facilitate
this de Levende Delta organised a symposium. This symposium was organised to continue the
discussions and to keep in contact with the other partners involved in the Emove project.
De Levende Delta made it clear during the interview that it would like to receive more information
about the different project, research projects, and statuses of these projects. Symposia are identified
as an opportunity for the VNSC as the can be used to bring actors together which in turn leads to new
insights and additional knowledge.
1.2 Interview with Red onze Polders
Red onze Polders was interviewed at the same time as mr Robesin who had been asked by Red onze
Polders to provide some input. Both interviewees recognised the importance of the VNSC but are of
the opinion that the VNSC could play its role better. The value of the VNSC lies in facilitating the
cooperation between the Netherlands and Flanders, the interviewees are of the opinion that more
information about this cooperation should be provided. The interviewees would also like to see more
information about the different projects and research. The interviewees belief that the VNSC mostly
communicates with the upper levels, meaning that the VNSC communicates mostly with the Dutch
and Flemish governmental authorities, provinces, and water boards. At the moment the interviewees
only receive a newsletter with information about concluded projects. The interviewees would like to
see more communication between the VNSC and other organisations and/or individuals. In this case
the interviewees would like to be kept up-to-date about the activities of the VNSC and on the
outcomes of projects. The interviewees provided several methods to do this. Presentations about the
outcome of projects with the possibility to discuss findings, or events with the same purpose could be
organised. These presentations or events could provide information, allow actors to seek additional
clarification, and allows actors to connect and exchange thoughts.
The interviewees see an opportunity for the VNSC in promoting a better understanding of the Schelde
estuary as a whole as well as promoting a better understanding of the different actors involved in the
Schelde estuary. The VNSC could achieve this by organising presentations where outcomes of
research projects can be explained and discussed, and where actors can engage each other. De
interviewees are of the opinion that an open dialogue would help actors to understand each others

34. 34
motivations and wishes for the Schelde estuary, this could lead to a better understanding of the
actors involved. The VNSC could also provide insight into the motivations of the different
governmental authorities. This could help to alleviate some of the concern around the motivations of
the Port of Antwerp and the Flemish government.
1.3 Interview with the Zeeuwse Milieufederatie
The Zeeuwse Milieufederatie (ZMf) does not have any direct contact with the VNSC but sees this as
an important omission. The ZMf does have contact with the Schelderaad and takes part in discussions
and debates via this route. The ZMf is of the opinion that the Schelderaad is not structured enough
and is not binding enough for the different organisations involved. This makes it hard to involve the
same people or the same organisations in the discussion which in turn hinders the establishment of
stronger links and personal rapport and understanding. To alleviate this the VNSC should do more to
stimulate the cooperation between actors. This would allow the actors to make stronger connections
and facilitates an open dialogue. Furthermore, the VNSC should make an effort to integrate the
different projects and research projects and make these accessible to outsiders. The ZMf provided a
succinct explanation for this particular wish. The Flemish authorities make a decision which relates to
the Flemish part of the Schelde estuary, in this process only the Flemish organisation get to provide
any input. The Dutch organisations and governmental authorities are only informed about the
decision. The ZMf is of the opinion that Dutch organisations and governmental authorities should be
more closely involved as the decisions of one country will have effects for the other. To solve this the
decision making process of both Flanders and the Netherlands should be integrated more. For the
VNSC this would mean that it would have to provide more insight into the actors involved. The ZMf
stressed that the VNSC could do more to involve actors in decision making processes and could do
more to make other organisations and actors more insightful.
1.4 Interview with the VNSC
The VNSC was also approached for an interview as this interview could be used to provide additional
insight into the reasoning behind the current communication practices. At the moment the VNSC uses
a bureau to handle the communication in all its different forms. The project leaders of the different
projects undertaken by the VNSC decide on the communication methods and the frequency of
communication. This means that the communication will differ between projects. The Schelderaad is
used to gather input from other actors. Not all actors or stakeholders can be involved in the
Schelderaad and the assumption is made that these are represented by the governmental authorities
or organisations that are involved in the Schelderaad or VNSC.
At the moment the VNSC communicates at the start of every project. This is done because the VNSC
believes that knowledge and information are value free and communicates this knowledge and
information to the stakeholders so each actor can have all of the available information. The
information that is communicated is not related to any following steps to ensure that the information
which is communicated is value free. The VNSC recognises that involving actors is important but it has
a hard time determining how many actors to involve and which actors to involve. The goal is to
involve all actors that are affected by the project through the use of direct involvement in the process
or through the use of advocates. The other actors are informed about the project in different ways,

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for example through the newsletter or by organising symposia. The VNSC is making an effort to
communicate with stakeholders but has mentioned that it has trouble determining which actors to
involve.
1.5 Interview with Pantarein
Pantarein is the organisation which coordinates the communication for the VNSC. The communication
organised by Pantarein is limited to external communication, mainly parties interested in the projects
and research carried out. The external communication methods have been renewed by Pantarein
over the past year. This resulted in a house style for all documents, newsletters, brochures, and the
website. The media Pantarein uses are:
• Newsletters, these are used to provide background information about activities undertaken
by the VNSC. The newsletters are send out quarterly to everyone who has expressed interest
in the newsletters by signing up for them.
• Website, the website provides all information about the VNSC as an organisation, such as the
aim of the VNSC, its history, and how it operates. The websites also provides information
about the central themes of the VNSC. It also provides users the opportunity to look into the
different projects and scientific research.
• Folders and brochures, the folders and brochures address research, problems, or plans. The
folders and brochures present the information in an accessible way and should be able to
inform a way range of readers.
• Schelde symposium, this symposium is organised yearly and addresses several topic through
the use of speakers. The symposia also provide attendees with the opportunity to network
and exchange ideas.
Pantarein does not employ one specific communication strategy for all projects. The type of project
and the type of information that needs to be conveyed dictates which type of medium would be best
suited for this. This strategy allows Pantarein to choose the types of media that are best suited for
conveying the information in the most effective way possible.
The pieces to be published are first checked by one of the secretaries to ensure factual correctness
and checked by a redaction for spelling and grammar before the pieces are published.
Pantarein is also present during internal meetings through process facilitation. The information
gained from these internal meetings is used by Pantarein to provide insight into the internal working
of the VNSC on the website and to add additional information to the brochures, website, or
newsletters.
Pantarein is of the opinion that that the communication could be improved further by creating a
communication network. This should consist of the VNSC as well as other organisations. The
communication network could give the other organisations more input into projects and could
facilitate the communication as some information is easier to convey in person than it is through text.
1.6 Interview with Waterwegen en Zeekanaal
Waterwegen en Zeekanaal oversees the waterways and grounds along these waterways in the west
and central part of Flanders. Waterwegen en Zeekanaal is in contact with the VNSC regularly. The