1. 1
Dr Jan Breckenridge and Paula Bennett
Gendered Violence Research Network
School of Social Sciences, Arts & Social Sciences
UNSW Australia
Prepared for the NSW Department of Family and Community Services
July 2014

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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Pauline Nolan, Marryam Chehelnabi, the Wing Chun Kung
Fu Organisation’s trainers, the course participants and all the other stakeholders who willingly
gave their time and thoughtful comments on their experiences of ‘Warrior Women’.
Authorised contact details
Dr Jan Breckenridge
Senior Lecturer, School of Social Sciences
& Co-Convenor, Gendered Violence Research Network
UNSW AUSTRALIA (The University of New South Wales)
Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
j.breckenridge@unsw.edu.au
ISBN 978-0-7334-3509-6
The views expressed in this publication do not represent any official position on the part of
the Gendered Violence Research Network or UNSW Australia, only the views of the authors.

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1. Executive Summary........................................................................................................ 4
2.1 Course Background ......................................................................................... 6
2. Background, Structure & Implementation..................................................................... 6
2.2 Course Structure.............................................................................................. 8
2.3 Course Implementation.................................................................................... 9
3. Literature Review: Exploring the Evidence................................................................. 10
3.1 Prevalence and Impacts of Domestic Violence............................................ 10
3.2 Ongoing Effects of Coercive Control............................................................ 11
3.3 Ongoing Perpetrator Harassment and Violence .......................................... 11
3.4 Limitations of the Literature on Self-defence for Women............................ 12
3.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Self-defence for Women................................. 13
3.6 Empirical Evidence......................................................................................... 15
3.7 Concluding Comments .................................................................................. 17
4. Research Methods ........................................................................................................ 18
5. Findings......................................................................................................................... 20
5.1 Participants’ Expectations............................................................................. 20
5.1.1 Safety ......................................................................................................................21
5.1.2 Confidence and self-esteem ...................................................................................22
5.2 Planning, Content and Implementation ........................................................ 22
5.2.1 Course planning ......................................................................................................23
5.2.2 Course content........................................................................................................23
5.2.3 Course implementation ...........................................................................................25
5.3 Experiences of the Course ............................................................................ 26
5.3.1 Participants .............................................................................................................26
5.3.2 Trainers and SHLV Coordinator..............................................................................28
5.4 Additional issues raised ................................................................................ 29
6. Recommendations........................................................................................................ 30
Appendix One.................................................................................................................... 30
Appendix Two ................................................................................................................... 30
Appendix Three................................................................................................................. 30
References ........................................................................................................................ 30

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‘Warrior Women’ was developed as a six week self-defence course tailored to meet the
needs of women who had left a domestic violence (DV)1
relationship and who were receiving
support services from the Redfern ‘Staying Home Leaving Violence’ (SHLV)2
project under
the auspices of Weave Youth & Community Services. At the time of writing, 21 SHLV
projects were being funded by the NSW Department of Family and Community to provide an
integrated service response to women who have separated from a violent partner but intend
to remain in the family home or another home of their choice. Weave is a non-profit
community organisation that has been working with disadvantaged and vulnerable women,
young people, children and families in the City of Sydney and South Sydney areas for over
30 years.
The ‘Warrior Women’ self-defence course originated from a partnership between the
Redfern SHLV project and the Wing Chun Kung Fu Organisation (WCKFO)3
in Surry Hills.
Offered for the first time in February 2013, the overall objective of the course was for these
women to take back control of their lives after leaving a violent relationship by teaching them
to be confident, powerful and safe.
The purpose of this report is to:
 document the background, structure and implementation of the ‘Warrior Women’ pilot
self-defence course
 review the conceptual and empirical literature examining self-defence courses for
women
 analyse the findings of a preliminary qualitative inquiry into participant, worker and
trainer experiences of the course, as well as key stakeholder opinions
 provide recommendations for the development of future self-defence courses for
SHLV clients and for DV victims more broadly.
In summary, the findings indicated that all participants had concerns about their safety prior
to the course, even with the added security provided by the SHLV program. Participants felt
that their experience of DV had affected their self-confidence and self-esteem, and they
1
Domestic violence (DV) and domestic and family violence (DFV) are used interchangeably in this report.
2
See Appendix One for more information about the Staying Home Leaving Violence Program.
3
See Appendix Two for more information about the Wing Chun Kung Fu Organisation.

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undertook the course in the hope of gaining a sense of safety and confidence, and improving
their wellbeing. Post-course evaluations, both written and anecdotal, reflected that the
participants found the course useful in reducing anxiety, building confidence, and
contributing to a sense of community by creating a network of support and potential
friendship. These enthusiastic reports were echoed by the trainers and several key
stakeholders. However, other stakeholders raised concerns about the appropriateness of
self-defence courses/training for DV clients and for women in general.
The overall findings suggest that while it may not be appropriate for every SHLV client, a
self-defence course such as ‘Warrior Women’ can be a positive experience and another
means by which to work with certain clients towards their recovery. The concluding
recommendations for future courses focus on how relevant staff should conceptually and
practically support client involvement; how trainers should be willing to provide more than
their standard offering; and how the course should be explicitly tailored to clients’ needs. In
addition, consideration should be given to re-naming the course to minimise misconceptions
about its intent and building in an evaluation component prior to course commencement.

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The original impetus for ‘Warrior Women’ came from the counselling practice of the Redfern
SHLV Coordinator (Marryam Chehelnabi) in 2012, and her critical reflection on the
circumstances of one particular SHLV client. This client had reported that she was terrified to
leave her home and walk down the street, even during the day. The SHLV Coordinator
realised that the woman was effectively a prisoner in her own home despite the installation
of security equipment and legal protection afforded to her as part of the SHLV suite of
services, including an Apprehended Domestic Violence Order (ADVO) against her ex-
partner. The client herself expressed a deceptively simple wish – to be able to walk down a
street without feeling scared. This reported experience is similar to other women’s stories of
leaving a violent relationship with a diminished sense of confidence, power and safety in
their own communities.
The SHLV Coordinator also reflected that SHLV effectively addressed certain client
circumstances and external barriers to women participating more fully in normal activities –
for example, assistance with education and employment opportunities to prevent the poverty
often associated with leaving a violent relationship; maintaining stable housing; and
maximising safety through enhanced security and partnerships with the criminal justice
system. However, despite these service offerings, some women continued to feel unsafe
and under-confident in their community, which the SHLV Coordinator attributed to the
ongoing trauma that some women carry from their experience of DV.
Trauma literature explicitly discusses the effects of trauma on the body and makes specific
suggestions about different therapeutic interventions which may assist women with post-
traumatic responses to become better able to regulate the core arousal system in the brain
and “feel safe inside their own body” (van der Kolk 2009: 12). The SHLV Coordinator was
particularly influenced by these ideas and shared a belief expressed by van der Kolk that
Western psychotherapy had paid little attention to the experience and interpretation of
disturbed physical sensations and action patterns (van der Kolk 2009: 13). It is not
uncommon for women who experience severe physical and/or sexual violence over a period

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of time to feel disconnected from their bodies which may directly affect their ability to feel
confident in their bodily/physical competence.
Aware of the importance of psychological safety, combined with an explicit aim to address
women’s concerns about feeling physically safe and confident in their bodily/physical
competence, the SHLV Coordinator decided to approach a number of self-defence schools
to discuss possible assistance and subsequently chose one in Surry Hills – the Wing Chun
Kung Fu Organisation (WCKFO), which has been in operation in that location since 1986.
The experiences of women leaving DV such as ongoing fear for their safety and feeling
dissociated from their bodies resonated with the WCKFO Master (Rick Spain) who had a
passionate commitment to encouraging personal and psychological safety as a result of his
own experience of family violence.
Consistent with a participatory action framework, the SHLV Coordinator decided to interview
her current caseload of 20 clients about their potential involvement in a self-defence course
developed specifically for women from Redfern SHLV. The interviews also provided an
opportunity to assess whether the clients were psychologically safe enough to be able to join
such a course and for clients to self-assess whether they were in a position to participate
given external barriers such as job commitments, educational responsibilities and childcare
constraints. All 20 clients were initially positive about the idea, but after the assessment
interviews and further discussion of their circumstances with the SHLV Coordinator, 12
decided to undertake the course4
.
These participants were asked to complete surveys capturing their hopes and expectations
of the course (see Section 5). The women also created the name of the course – ‘Warrior
Women’5
– because they believed that they had fought hard to survive unspeakable
violence. They also felt that this name captured the strength and tenacity which they had
begun to demonstrate and which they wanted to continue to develop through the course.
After confirming their interest and availability, WCKFO met with the participants to hear
directly what they wanted and what they thought would work. The trainers were also able to
spend time with the SHLV Coordinator to ensure that they understood the potential
participants’ issues and to discuss the appropriate use of language and self-defence
techniques. This period of engagement enabled the development of a meaningful
partnership between WCKFO and the Redfern SHLV project, as well as ensuring the pilot
4
This number later became 10 because two of the potential participants experienced crises near the start of the
course which precluded their participation.
5
See Recommendation 4 in Section 6 for issues related to the course name.

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self-defence course specifically addressed the safety and security concerns previously
raised by clients with the SHLV Coordinator.
In terms of budget, the pilot course was seed-funded by a grant from the Department of
Family and Community Services (FaCS), also the funding body for the state-wide SHLV
Program. And WCKFO offered the pilot course at a reduced rate (approximately $180 per
participant) to facilitate attendance.
The ‘Warrior Women’ pilot course was originally designed to run over a six-week period and
focus on self-defence techniques, offender psychology and tactics, and home security. The
course documentation6
specified the following overall aim, actions and outcomes.
Overall aim: To empower women to look after themselves, their family, their homes and their
immediate environment.
Four actions to achieve this aim:
 Teach participants various self-defence techniques related to different styles of attack
 Explore a common theme – escape and evade wherever possible
 Consider the psychology of victim, perpetrator and survival
 Expose participants to a range of ideas and expertise by inviting guest speakers from
the police and the security industry to present information at the course.
Four projected outcomes:
 Confidence7
 Knowledgeable in personal security
 Able to identify risky environments, people and situations
 Able to defend themselves.
Course aims for each of the six weeks:
1. Participants understand and are able to identify the ritual of attack; secure their
home; and understand the psychology of ‘predator and prey’
6
See Appendix Three for original scanned ‘Warrior Women’ submission and course documentation, including a
detailed program of the six-week course.
7
An increase in confidence was not specified.

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2. Participants are able to defend themselves if attacked from behind; and understand
perimeter security beyond their actual home
3. Participants understand the legality of using weapons for self-defence; and are able
to defend themselves from the ground
4. Participants are able to understand the psychology of survival and survival
motivation; and are able to defend themselves from one-on-one attacks
5. Participants are able to defend themselves in multiple attacker situations
6. Participants are able to defend and disarm attackers using weapons; and the trainers
and workers have ensured that the women have got as much as possible out of the
course.
The course was run at WCKFO’s premises during February 2013 and the sessions were
usually held in the mid-late afternoon. Four instructors (two men and two women) delivered
the course and the SHLV Coordinator attended every session as a support for the
participants. At the end of each session, the SHLV Coordinator offered to debrief and speak
with individual women if they felt triggered by any of the course content.
After the first couple of sessions, it became clear that six weeks may not be adequate
because the participants needed a longer period of time to feel comfortable with the physical
activities which are required to learn and practice some of the self-defence techniques. The
course was subsequently extended to eight weeks and the participants were offered two free
private lessons each. There is no written documentation about this two-week extension
although interviews confirmed that the program elements remained while the course was
slowed down to better match the needs of participants.
The implementation of the course was not informed by relevant research evidence because
at that time they were not aware of any self-defence courses having been offered to other
women leaving DV.

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The following literature review covers empirical studies and conceptual discussions about
the implementation of self-defence courses for women more generally. In summary, there is
little agreement in the literature about the usefulness of self-defence courses for women,
either as a preventative strategy for possible future violence or as a response to women who
have previously experienced violence. Providing self-defence courses for women is also a
vexed and clearly ideological issue. However, the intention and capacity of such courses to
empower women and increase self-confidence/self-esteem is now being empirically tested,
and there is emerging evidence that self-defence training can be an effective mechanism for
women to increase their confidence, sense of safety and physical competence.
There are very limited mentions of self-defence training specifically for women who have
experienced DV. Therefore, this review will provide selected information on DV in Section
3.1 with a focus on relational dynamics that should conceivably be incorporated into any
future course. The available self-defence literature will then be discussed in Section 3.2.
There is a plethora of literature documenting the extent and effects of DFV on women and
their children. National and international studies confirm the high prevalence of DV. For
example, the Australian component of the International Violence Against Women Survey
(IVAWS) found that over one third of Australian women experience physical, sexual or
psychological violence or threats from a partner or ex-partner during their lifetime (Mouzos
and Makkai 2004). Indigenous Australian women in particular may be up to 35 times more
likely than non-Indigenous women to experience domestic and family violence (Council of
Australian Governments 2010) and one in four Australian children witness or live with
domestic violence (Spinney and Blandy 2011).
DV can result in multiple physical and mental health difficulties for women and their children
which may require immediate intervention as well as longer term support. For example,
VicHealth (2004) identified violence perpetrated by a partner as the leading contributor to
death, disability and physical illness in women aged 15 to 44. DV can also increase women’s
long-term risks of a number of health and psychological problems including injury, chronic
pain, drug and alcohol abuse, disability and depression (Campbell 2002; Heise and Garcia-

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Moreno 2002; Fishman et al. 2010: 923). Children, too, can develop psychological difficulties
from living with or directly experiencing violence in the family home (Kennedy et al. 2010).
Through the late 1980s to early 1990s, researchers began to view DFV as a pattern of
‘coercive control’, rather than through the lens of a prescribed range of overtly violent acts
(Okun 1986; Herman 1994). The notion of DFV as coercive control has more recently
received prominence through the work of Johnson (2008) and Stark (2007), both of whom
locate individual incidents of violence within the relational pattern or context in which they
occur. From this perspective, a range of diverse, ongoing and intentional perpetrator tactics
and behaviours form a relational dynamic that may be experienced by their partner as
harmful or intimidating, and which underpin inequalities of power within the relationship.
Tactics used by DFV perpetrators to establish and maintain power are not always directly
physically violent, but can also encompass strategies which are intended to remind women
of an abuser’s physical power and potential for violence.
Viewed in isolation from one another and as individual one-off incidents, particular
behaviours can appear unremarkable and not even controlling. However, an appreciation of
these behaviours as part of an ongoing pattern of intimidation reveals an abuser’s intention
towards coercive control. In particular, the context of an intimate relationship enables the
perpetrator to tailor the tactics of abuse to the vulnerabilities arising from the woman’s social
location (such as her disability status, absence from the workforce because of parenting
responsibilities, or poverty) or to actively create vulnerabilities (for example, financial
dependence or restriction on mobility). Isolation of a woman from friends and family is a
common tactic that enhances the perpetrator’s power and control, and the woman’s
entrapment in the violent relationship.
The concept of coercive control is helpful in explaining the ways in which perpetrator tactics
can erode a woman’s sense of self and self-esteem, which may even continue for some
women after leaving the violent relationship.
When considering any DV interventions, it is important not to overestimate the power of
workers or projects alone to shape client outcomes. In reality, the final outcomes for women
are frequently and primarily determined by whether there is ongoing perpetrator harassment

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and violence which may also necessitate lengthy and expensive interactions with the
criminal justice system. Sullivan (2011) emphasises that program evaluations must
acknowledge that patterns of re-victimisation which critically affect client outcomes are the
responsibility of perpetrators and not the clients or services. Moreover, any attempt to assist
women and provide appropriate service responses can provoke the perpetrator to escalate
their tactics of control and harassment, so this is another relational dynamic to consider.
“But to my surprise, when I searched for research on women’s self-defense
[original spelling], I found only a handful of articles and books, few of them
empirical … there was a resounding silence about the question of whether
formal training in self-defense bolsters women’s ability to resist. Self-defense
training was, in effect, invisible as a means of violence prevention.”
Hollander 2009: 574
Hollander’s assertion succinctly summarises the apparent dearth of literature examining the
helpfulness of self-defence for women. In addition, ‘self-defence’ is not defined in an agreed
way. And there is slippage between the use and meaning of ‘self-defence course’, ‘self-defence
class’ and ‘self-defence training’ with the terms frequently used interchangeably despite
possible differences in meaning and practical implementation. For example, while not
consistently described as such in the literature, ‘course’ appears to be offered as a response to
previous experiences of violence, and ‘training’/’class’ is more aligned to a violence prevention
strategy. Even within these categories, it is difficult to compare the purpose and implementation
of courses, and various styles of training may involve different content and delivery. Moreover,
the literature that is available focuses solely on avoiding rape, sexual assault and
mugging/physical assaults from strangers. Where the prevention of DV or intimate partner
violence is mentioned in a particular study, it is more as an afterthought or as an
acknowledgement that the victim’s relationship to an attacker (such as an intimate partnership)
may affect the outcome of an attack (for example, Ullman 2007).
The available research from outside of Australia is predominantly written from a Northern
American/Western perspective which may limit its applicability to women from other cultural
groups such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women. Another point of difference is
reflected in Hollander’s 2004 study of a range of courses which found that women who attend
self-defence training had not necessarily already experienced victimisation. While this is not
universally agreed in other literature (for example, Brecklin and Ullman’s 2004 review), it is
likely that there would be a mix of women participants in training classes and courses – some

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who have experienced past victimisation and others who have not. Therefore, the purpose of
self-defence cannot be generalised to all participants attending a particular course/training.
The rest of this section highlights the apparent division of research endeavours in this area
between conceptual/theoretical discussions exploring the symbolic meanings and gender
messages conveyed by teaching women self-defence, and a smaller stream of empirical
research examining course outcomes. While conceptual and empirical approaches need not be
mutually exclusive, the relevant literature is categorised and presented from one of these two
approaches.
Much of the conceptual literature is feminist inspired and yet reflects polarised positions about
the political and ideological purpose and actual helpfulness of promoting or offering self-defence
classes for women. Gender is a key theoretical concept in feminist conceptual research and the
following key questions are theorised in many of the relevant articles:
 Can and should women be expected to defend themselves?
 Can self-defence training be used to blame women for not protecting themselves better?
Hollander (2009) suggests that concerns about self-defence courses for women fall into three
main categories – it is impossible, it is too dangerous, it is victim blaming. In reality, these
categories are rarely discrete and frequently overlap as explanations for why women’s self-
defence is problematic. The essentialist belief in the impossibility of women’s successful
resistance to violence lies at the root of many negative reactions to women’s self-defence.
However, this explanation defines ‘resistance’ in physical terms only and supports a reductionist
belief that all men are stronger than all women. Accordingly, self-defence classes or training are
understood to be only about physical strategies to prevent violence rather than also
incorporating violence avoidance and strategies to increase self-esteem and confidence. In a
slightly different version of this proposition, Rosenblum (2007 cited in Hollander 2009)
emphasises the potential dangerousness of women’s self-defence by problematising the use of
violence to respond to violence. Conceptually, Rosenblum makes no distinction between
aggressive violence initiated by a perpetrator and self-defensive violence used by the
victim/survivor of an attack. In this argument, all violent behaviour is rendered the same and is
seemingly devoid of context.
Some researchers claim that the strength of concerns held about self-defence for women is
primarily based on its challenge to gender and existing social hierarchies (Hollander 2004).

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Ullman (2007) argues that police and prosecutors still use evidence regarding a victim’s use of
resistance as a way to support the credibility of rape claims. The expectation that if women are
really at risk they would strenuously and obviously resist is actually at odds with reported
strategies and techniques offered in self-defence training teaching women to avoid violence and
leave risky situations (Hollander 2004). However, this concern is but one example of the fear
that self-defence instruction symbolically holds women responsible for controlling male sexual
(and other) aggression and contributes to victim blaming. The logic underpinning this concern is
that making women responsible for controlling male violence effectively de-centres and reduces
men’s responsibility for controlling their own violence. In this way, men’s violence against
women and their responsibility to control their own behaviour is rendered invisible.
In a sophisticated conceptual critique, Mardorossian (2003) argues similarly that emphasising
self-defence for women wrongly de-emphasises the true cause of rape – i.e. male aggression.
For Mardorossian, there is a two-fold problem with structured courses and women’s self-
defence training:
 Self-defence for women targets ‘feminine passivity’ as a problem to be solved and is
arguably another form of victim blaming
 Such targeting inevitably reinforces and reiterates the gendered perception of
strength/action with masculinity and weakness/passivity with femininity.
But does women’s self-defence inevitably create this particular gender binary? To accept the
gendered belief that men are unstoppably strong and that women are inherently vulnerable is
claimed to help perpetuate violence against women (Hollander 2001). Equally, while self-
defence (including martial arts and boxing) remains accepted as a common and accepted
pastime for men, women will continue to be denied the opportunity to feel physically competent
and confident. Cahill (2009) argues that feminist critiques of self-defence which suggest it is
wrong to focus on women’s behaviour and not male aggression are actually misguided. Cahill
asserts that these do not sufficiently take into account the ways in which feminist self-defence
courses can constitute what she refers to as “the embodied transformations of the meanings of
femininity and rape” (2009: 363). From this perspective, self-defence provides an opportunity for
women to be more aware of their physical abilities and may potentially broaden an individual
woman’s capacity to participate in social and political life, thereby challenging traditional
gendered notions of femininity.
Whether self-defence training/courses actually create a genuine transformation or a false sense
of security (which may unwittingly encourage women to remain and defend themselves in

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situations of danger) is equally contested in the literature. Many of the researchers argue that
not all self-defence training and courses are the same and therefore there is no single, easy
answer to this question. In early research, Madden (1995) makes a distinction between self-
defence taught in the context of martial arts courses where gender and a prior history of
violence are not considered in the course content and implementation, as opposed to
training/courses which aim to enhance feelings of control and reduce participant’s feelings of
vulnerability. Hollander (2004) makes a similar distinction and suggests that feminist self-
defence is distinguished by attention to two related dimensions of women’s experience: a focus
on sexual violence prevention (although Hollander acknowledges that the lessons learned may
also be applicable to other types of violence); and substantial assertiveness training and
discussion of psychological and emotional issues related to violence against women which may
re-emerge in the context of self-defence. Hollander argues that these two dimensions contrast
with martial arts training and non-feminist self-defence classes which frequently do not
adequately incorporate any relevant emotional and psychological concerns for female
participants.
While there is limited empirical research examining women’s self-defence and rape prevention,
there is a total absence of any outcome research on self-defence strategies which may be
helpful for women leaving a violent situation and needing to protect themselves from an ex-
partner. In addition, the empirical research that is available is frequently undertaken in
college/university contexts, and therefore with a younger cohort of women – all factors which
should be recognised when considering the generalisability of the results. It is also important to
acknowledge that most studies focus on prevention so women are reporting what they think
they will do, not what they actually did do. As women may not know how they would respond to
a genuine physical threat and an actual assault, this may reflect an increase in confidence and
self-esteem but not necessarily competence.
The available empirical research provides the following evidence:
 Johnston et al. (2004) conducted three different trials investigating whether women
could change their walking style and hence reduce their vulnerability to physical attack.
The authors concluded that changed walking styles can also change a woman’s
physicality and levels of confidence and reduce their vulnerability to physical attack.
 Fraser and Russell (2000) examined the importance of the group in women's acquisition
of skills during a self-defence course. Results indicated that the group context was

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instrumental in helping women to acquire self-defence skills and develop feelings of
empowerment. They noted emotional containment, witnessing, modelling, altruism,
exploring boundaries and forming new relationships with other women as being
important factors in achieving group goals. Therefore, self-defence classes are
potentially more than violence prevention but can also contribute to creating a
community or network of support for women who have traditionally been marginalised
and isolated by DV perpetrator tactics.
 De Welde undertook ethnographic research on a women's self-defence course and
found that socially available gender narratives of white femininity are potentially
disempowering and victimising to women (2003: 274). Changes in the way the women
described themselves as a result of the course reflected a more powerful sense of self
which challenge dominant gendered discourses about women and their capabilities.
 McDaniel (1993) used an experimental design to investigate the relationship between
self-defence training and women's fear of crime and feelings of physical competence.
The results confirmed a significantly lower fear of rape and increased confidence in their
physical competence to defend themselves against an unarmed attacker.
 Hollander in a longitudinal study of self-defence training for women found that the
training had many other positive effects on women’s lives – effects which she suggests
could in themselves potentially reduce women’s risk of assault. Participants reported
more comfortable interactions with strangers, acquaintances and intimates; more
positive feelings about their bodies; increased self-confidence; and transformed beliefs
about women, men, and gender (2004: 205).
 Ullman discusses a number of studies all of which found that several active resistance
strategies taught in self-defence training were effective for avoiding rape without
increasing risk of physical injury. In summary, fighting, fleeing, and screaming/yelling are
all associated with decreased odds of completed rape (2007: 413).
 Hollander (2010) investigated the reasons why women participated in self-defence
training or not. Reasons for taking self-defence instruction included friends’
recommendations, visions of their ‘possible selves’, and fear of violence. Barriers to
participating in self-defence training were logistical issues such as time, money, and
availability of classes.

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The definitional challenges and the research preoccupation with the prevention of rape and
sexual assault mean that the literature provides little guidance on how a self-defence course for
women who have left a violent relationship may be developed. However, select information from
the various studies reviewed in this report could be adapted.
Furthermore, it is important to underscore in any analysis of self-defence classes/training that
women are never responsible for men’s violence and any suggestion that they attempt to
defend themselves should not be seen to imply that they are ever responsible for preventing
such violence. Hollander (2004) makes the point that acknowledging that some women resist
men’s violence does not logically mean that all women can do so or that they should be blamed
if they choose not to resist or are unsuccessful in doing so.
The conceptual literature demonstrates polarised and seemingly incompatible ideological
positions about the symbolic meaning of teaching women self-defence, i.e. self-defence either
reinforces gender binaries and therefore women’s passivity; or self-defence provides an
opportunity to challenge and subvert existing gender stereotypes. Nonetheless, the empirical
research provides emerging evidence indicating tentative support for self-defence
courses/training as an effective mechanism by which women can increase their confidence,
sense of safety, and physical competence.

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This evaluation of the ‘Warrior Women’ pilot self-defence course is a process evaluation
(also known as a formative, developmental or implementation evaluation). As such, this
report will identify areas of the course that worked well for the SHLV participants, as well as
areas that may benefit from change or which could enhance future course delivery. Process
evaluations cannot answer questions about the effect or impact of a program (such as this
pilot course) on participants, but recommendations will be made in Section 6 suggesting a
possible evaluation design which could monitor and measure the effectiveness of any future
course for SHLV participants.
Section 5 will provide an in-depth analysis of the available qualitative data which documents
participant, worker, trainer and key stakeholder perceptions and experiences of the pilot
course.
Primary data has been collected via the following means:
 interviews with three of the four trainers (Rick Spain – Trainer 1; Amy Spain –
Trainer 2; Frances Straumietis – Trainer 3)
 subsequent written commentary from Trainers 1 and 2
 10 participant pre-course surveys (Participants 1-10)
 3 participant evaluation forms (Participants 1-3), as well as a brief interview
undertaken with one course participant by the Weave Manager at a later date
 key stakeholder interviews (Pauline Nolan, FaCS -- Key Stakeholder 1; Marryam
Chehelnabi, former SHLV Coordinator for Redfern SHLV – Key Stakeholder 2; Kylie
Jones, current Redfern SHLV Coordinator – Key Stakeholder 3; and Lucy Naughton,
Weave Manager – Key Stakeholder 4)
 project and course documentation.
A thorough review and thematic analysis of all data has been applied, including reference
against the current literature. Illustrative quotes from interviews, focus groups and written
evaluations are presented throughout this report. The participants’ data has been de-
identified and any names are pseudonyms. Direct quotes are indicated by the use of italics.

19. 19
Several limitations need to be taken into account when considering the data:
 given the small sample size, SHLV client experiences are not generalizable
 only a relatively small number of interviews were able to be undertaken within the
available timeframe and scope of the study for the data collection
 there was considerable time lag between the course implementation and the data
collection
 the evaluation relies heavily on self-reported information
 validated outcome measures were not administered to participants from the
commencement of the course and at regular intervals including completion, so there
is no capacity to demonstrate change over time as a result of course attendance.

20. 20
The findings from the analysis of all available data will be discussed under the following
emergent areas:
 Participants’ expectations of the ‘Warrior Women’ course
 Course planning, content and implementation
 Participants’, trainers’ and the SHLV Coordinator’s experiences of the course
 Additional issues raised.
All the participants completed a pre-course survey developed by the SHLV Coordinator to
provide a snapshot of their expectations, hopes and ideas about the course. The survey also
explored how safe, secure and confident participants felt in their own home, on the street
and around other people. The last survey question specifically examined perceptions of how
a self-defence course could address some of the ongoing effects of DV in their lives.
It is important to note that none of the participants had previously participated in self-defence
training so their survey comments were not influenced by prior experience of self-defence
training and should be genuine reflections of how the women hoped their lives would change
as a result of the course.
Three respondents described participation in the course simply as a way to learn how to
defend themselves from future violence – ‘To defend myself’; ‘To use self-defence’; ‘To learn
how to defend myself’ (Participants 3, 5 and 6).
Four participants specifically mentioned increasing their confidence or emotional strength,
and two of them associated this with feeling safer and more secure:
‘I hope to gain a greater sense of security and to build confidence’ (Participant 10)
‘Personal strength, emotional strength, discipline, stress-control’ (Participant 8).
The remaining participants explicitly linked increased confidence with an enhanced capacity
to defend themselves:
‘More confidence in myself and techniques that can help me if I am confronted in
a situation that’s dangerous’ (Participant 1)

21. 21
Self-defence skills, confidence to be able to help protect myself in a potentially
dangerous situation (Participant 9).
The responses indicated that the participants were generally quite thoughtful about their
reasons for wanting to attend the course. Of importance, the participants’ responses
provided no indication of a wish for revenge or to pursue their ex-partners in an aggressive
way. Nor did they reflect unrealistic hopes that the course could help them to physically
overwhelm a perpetrator or dominate in a dangerous situation. Instead, almost all the
participants expressed hopes for change and increased safety, confidence and wellbeing.
All of the survey respondents indicated concern for their safety in either their own home, on
the street or around other people – and for a few of the participants, in all three settings.
While acknowledging that enhanced security installed by SHLV made a marked difference to
their feelings of safety in the home, some women still had concerns:
Pretty safe when people are there but not always at night (Participant 1)
Not very because my ex is still stalking me (Participant 6)
Very safe since I have gotten locks on everything (Participant 3).
Most participants reported feeling safer around other people since leaving their violent
relationship, particularly if they knew them. However, their responses demonstrate the
longer-term effects of perpetrator-enforced isolation and ongoing concerns about
unexpectedly seeing their ex-partner:
I feel my safest with other people if I know them (Participant 8)
I feel most safe with people I know but when around strangers I feel uncomfortable
and frightened (Participant 5)
Depends on who. If I saw my ex I would be shit scared and I am also scared of
seeing violence when I am out (Participant 3).
All but one participant reported feeling anxious and unsafe on the street, particularly in
certain suburbs. This equates with the assessment of the SHLV Coordinator that women still
did not feel physically safe or confident in themselves more generally and continued to be
concerned about being a ‘victim’ of violence.
Depends on suburb – I can be paranoid at night (Participant 2)
Not really safe and secure. I still walk around looking over my shoulder (Participant 7)

22. 22
I feel a bit nervous and sometimes like I’m being followed (Participant 2)
In areas where I might bump into my ex-partner I feel very anxious (Participant 10).
It should not be a surprise that a safety in public places was a shared concern for most
participants, including those who reported feeling safer in their own homes or around other
people. When a woman chooses to leave a violent relationship and stay in her own home, it
means that the perpetrator knows where their ex-partner is living and perhaps even knows
her everyday routine and habits.
All participants suggested an awareness that DV had affected their wellbeing, and in
particular their self-confidence and self-esteem. And they all expressed some expectation
that ‘Warrior Women’ would assist them to re-gain a stronger sense of self:
It will improve my sense of safety and will allow me to address violence triggers
better. Maybe I won’t have anxiety attacks anymore (Participant 4)
By giving me confidence and empowering me into being stronger and not letting the
DV get the better of me and bring me down (Participant 1).
For some, the added bonus of the ‘Warrior Women’ course was the possibility of avoiding
violence or defending themselves if need be, which they also believed would contribute to
increasing their confidence and capacity to manage such situations should they arise in the
future:
I will be able to defend myself and maybe not continue to experience violence
anymore (Participant 1)
I am thinking they will teach me about self-defence and how to channel my anxiety
(Participant 4)
The confidence to be able to protect myself if need be and that will help ease fears
(Participant 6)
I think it will increase my sense of confidence and safety and in turn make me feel
more secure (Participant 9).
Course participants, trainers and key stakeholders all reported that care and attention were
particularly important in three areas: course planning, weekly content, and implementation
strategies and techniques. Data analysis reveals that efforts were made in all these areas to

23. 23
tailor ‘Warrior Women’ to the specific needs of women who had recently left a violent
relationship. This sets ‘Warrior Women’ apart from other more generic self-defence
opportunities8
.
All participants noted the importance of the pre-course meetings between WCKFO and the
SHLV Coordinator, and between WCKFO and the participants. The SHLV Coordinator
discussed assessing the suitability of a number of self-defence schools before deciding on
WCKFO and facilitating contact between WCKFO and the participants. This type of gradual
engagement was seen as helpful by all involved:
Engagement and the relationship between the school and the women was a really
important element in the success of the group (Key Stakeholder 1).
Trainer 2 described the usefulness of pre-course meetings as follows:
After meetings with Marrayum [SHLV Coordinator] prior to the course, it was clear to
us that her primary objective was for the women to feel safe in their own homes and
neighbourhood. In addition to her conversations with us and the literature she gave
us to read, it was also apparent that the women that we would be working with would
have had a history of domestic violence, either in the homes they grew up in or the
with past partners they chose or both. So we recognised that it needed to be more
than just a course in self-defence.
While it is impossible to know in advance, all trainers had some experience with past
violence. This was not intentionally shared, but when it happened, it was perceived as
helpful for their engagement with the participants. Key Stakeholder 1 reported a participant’s
comments that she appreciated knowing the WCKFO Master had pre-course experience of
violence in his own family of origin as it made her feel as if he would understand her
particular situation.
The ‘Warrior Women’ course was specially tailored for SHLV participants’ specific post-DV
needs. Trainer 1 explained that his aims for course participants were:
 To walk tall, not like victims
 Be aware of their environment – even if their house is a fortress, they are going to
have to leave it
8
A similar course has been run in Perth which indicates wider interest in this type of program, but participants
were not limited to DV clients (http://stbarts.org.au/2013/09/safe-as-house/ [accessed 15 July 2014].

24. 24
 Physical self-awareness – women who are traumatised are physically shut down
because of the DV. Basic exercise opens up a doorway to self-awareness and
builds confidence.
Participants, trainers and Key Stakeholders 1 and 2 all emphasised that the course was
never intended to be about physical self-defence techniques only:
It is important that women develop the confidence and courage to say ‘no’ and
increase their capacity to generally make decisions and life choices and to stop being
part of someone else’s life plan (Trainer 1)
We also considered that they also needed to trust themselves and their own bodies,
and that after being physically disassociated for potentially an extended period of
time, that they do have strength, restraint and ability (Trainer 2).
Most notably, all trainers strongly emphasised the importance of teaching avoidance of
violence and how to best escape unsafe situations:
But after DFV it is important to help women understand and assess for pre-cursers to
violence earlier so they can leave the situation (Trainer 1)
In the instance of ‘Warrior Women’, the emphasis would be less about the physical
acts of punching and kicking and more about recognising behaviour leading up to
violence (particularly in men), how recidivists select their victims and what we call the
4 stages of awareness (code white to red). This, in theory would give them a greater
sense of awareness and understanding of their environment and those in it and make
effective decisions based on the new information at hand (Trainer 2)
Techniques are to help women get into a situation where they can escape with
greater safety (Trainer 3).
The structure of the ‘Warrior Women’ course was developed so that each week built on skills
and knowledge taught in previous weeks. ‘Warrior Women’ was originally planned as a 6-
week course as outlined in Appendix 3. However, the pace of the course turned out to be
problematic for all involved. As Trainer 1 aptly summarised:
6 weeks was always too ambitious – we just tried to cover as many bases as
possible.
Trainer 3 commented that it was not always possible to rush through the content because of
the participant’s past experiences and the longer term effects of DV:
My personal view on the program is that it should be extended from the original 6
weeks to maybe 10-12 weeks. In the case of the pilot program, you come across

25. 25
days when it becomes emotionally confronting for some ladies. Time and care is
needed to sit and chat with these ladies. You cannot rush them through when they
are not at ease with what they are being taught in that particular lesson.
A review of the course materials indicates that WCKFO did attempt to ‘pack in’ as much
content as possible. While this may have been with the best of intentions, more time was
required to allow participants to move on at their own pace. In retrospect, spending one third
of the course on multiple attackers and attackers with weapons may not have been the
optimal use of time for DV clients undertaking a preliminary or first self-defence course.
However, the rationale for this was described by Trainer 2:
The reasoning I had for adding multiple attackers was more about adding another
element of encouraging the women to think strategically.
The course delivery was developed sensitively to accommodate participants’ needs. The
awareness and thoughtfulness of trainers is demonstrated in the following comments:
Women were disassociated from their physiology so we needed to be careful about
dialogues and words used because of triggers and flashbacks. Teaching needed to
be quieter, gentle and we delivered information carefully before action (Trainer 1)
We metered out the level of contact, from punching and kicking objects in the
beginning to grappling/wrestling at the end (Trainer 2).
Participants, trainers and Key Stakeholder 1 all reported the concerted efforts made to
attend to both group and individual dynamics. For example, each instructor was responsible
for a group of 2-3 participants, and the participants tended to self-select which trainer they
felt comfortable with. Only two participants stayed with the same trainer, and all the others
mixed and matched. As Trainer 2 reported:
Getting the right coach is important.
The course trainers developed coping strategies alongside the SHLV Coordinator to respond
to any triggers or concerns expressed by a participant:
Here we could only tread carefully and let them know that if they don’t feel
comfortable they can just watch or leave the room if it was too much. Marryam did
give us some coaching on how to deal with a situation if one of the women did get
upset, but since we are not psychologists or counsellors then we were really limited
in what we could do if something was triggered. So we took a preventative approach
with language selection and giving them the option to watch or leave (Trainer 2).

26. 26
The role undertaken by the SHLV Coordinator needs to be acknowledged as pivotal to the
functioning of a group such as this:
The role of the [SHLV] worker is really important. ‘Warrior Women’ is a sort of
support group with the same kind of dynamics which need to be carefully managed
(Key Stakeholder 4).
This report (Section 5.2.1) has already documented the significant role that the SHLV
Coordinator played in organising the group and preparing both trainers and participants. Her
role during the actual delivery of the course was equally significant. The SHLV Coordinator
attended every group, would attend to issues if they arose at the time, and offered de-
briefing at the end of every class. Just being there was important, as Trainer 3 suggests:
Having a mentor sitting in the class or even participating would help – e.g. when
Marryam was present, she was their security blanket and someone they were familiar
and comfortable with. She also helped mind the kids if they came with their
mums. The times that she wasn’t able to make it, only a few of the ladies would
attend. There were also other factors as sometimes they weren’t able to get
babysitters or other issues cropped up.
The SHLV Coordinator also made the point that personally attending the course allowed her
to take up issues for women which complemented counselling/case management and
became an additional tool in the overall SHLV response.
Until this study, there had been little or no internal evaluation of the ‘Warrior Women’ pilot.
Only three participants had completed a course evaluation form and a fourth had spoken
with the WEAVE Manager (Key Stakeholder 4) about her experiences of the course.
However, the written data and reported experiences still provide valuable insights into how
each group (participants, trainers and the SHLV Coordinator) experienced the ‘Warrior
Women’ course.
Key Stakeholders 1 and 2 reported anecdotally that all of the ten participants had positive
experiences of the course and had valued the opportunity to attend. Clients told the SHLV
Coordinator (Key Stakeholder 1) that they actually felt a different physicality. Moreover,
regardless of barriers to regular attendance such as childcare and other life crises, being
part of this group helped create a network of support and potential friendship for women who

27. 27
had previously been isolated by perpetrator tactics. The participants described this to the
SHLV Coordinator as providing a sense of community.
The three participants who completed the course evaluation form all reported finding the
course useful and were able to describe positive changes in their wellbeing which they
directly attributed to ‘Warrior Women’:
Learning to think about how my behaviour could help reduce anxiety and increase
my safety e.g. vary my routine (Participant 1)
It made me feel like a part of something with other people. It helped me with
confidence. It helped me protect myself and the kids (Participant 2)
Makes me feel empowered, capable and the physical workout reduces anxiety
(Participant 3).
These participants also indicated that they would join another course if one was provided,
with one stating – It has been a fantastic opportunity. They reported liking the trainers, the
physicality of the self-defence training, and being part of a group. These three participants
also indicated that they felt a little safer and/or confident in their own home, on the street and
around other people. Participant 1 indicated that she felt a lot more confident in her own
home and around other people.
However, these participants did note aspects of the course that they felt could be modified or
changed:
Nothing, although could have been longer (Participant 1)
The course did provide some triggers for some women but the trainers were really
good. Found straddling [the mount position] difficult but was able to sit out if need be
and then I re-joined the group and moved on (Participant 2).
The self-reported changes in wellbeing provide evidence that ‘Warrior Women’ was a
positive experience for the participants. In addition, there were two instances mentioned
briefly in the written evaluations and then described by the trainers and Key Stakeholder 1
which demonstrate the application of the strategies and techniques learned at ‘Warrior
Women’:
Case Example 1
One participant reported that she noticed her ex-partner ‘winding up’ over a pending court
case and she was able to defuse the situation and leave before a dangerous situation
emerged. Prior to the course, she believes she wouldn’t have ‘seen’ him waiting for her with

28. 28
her peripheral vision or been mindful of the situational triggers which may precede a violent
episode such as another court appearance. This participant emphasised the importance of
knowing how to recognise potential danger and how to escape possible confrontation before
it even happens.
Case Example 2
Another woman avoided a possible sexual assault by a stranger in a bar. When touched in
an unwanted sexual way, she used the techniques of palm strike, then ran [escaped] and got
the bar attendant to call the police. She successfully slowed the assailant, created space
and ran. The woman involved described feeling empowered and although unhappy about
the assault, did report feeling much more confident that she could manage to go out. This
story was shared at ‘Warrior Women’ and was seen as inspirational by the other women.
Individual case examples do not prove course effectiveness but they do provide evidence
that ‘Warrior Women’ strategies and techniques are able to be implemented by women who
have left a violent relationship to avoid further violence from either their previous partner or a
new perpetrator. Neither participant attempted to stay and fight or use the techniques for
longer than they needed to escape the situation and get other help. Moreover, in these
instances, the participants did not report feeling responsible for controlling the perpetrator’s
potentially violent behaviour but did suggest that they were very appreciative of being able to
avoid what in the past may have been an unavoidable experience of violence.
All the trainers spoke positively about the course and commented on their enjoyment of
working with the participants and seeing their progress:
I think it was helpful for the women to be around respectful and safe men (Trainer 1)
Personally, I thoroughly enjoyed working with the women. It was wonderful to see
them totally uncomfortable in their bodies and fairly quiet in the first week, to
gradually opening up and having fun with moving and interacting with each other
(Trainer 2)
Initially, when I was asked to help coach in this program, I was very nervous as I
have not participated in anything like this before. However, I found each day
rewarding because I was helping others and watching their confidence grow class by
class. The ladies would feel comfortable enough with you there and they were able to
chat about themselves and their family. I found it to be a very worthwhile program in
all aspects and I feel very privileged that I have been asked to help (Trainer 3).

29. 29
All trainers described the pilot course as a learning experience and were able to comment on
changes they would make if the course was run again. Interviews with each trainer, the
participants, and the two key stakeholders involved with the original group indicated that
there was a demonstrable willingness on the part of the trainers to listen, learn and adapt
their strategies and techniques to meet the needs of SHLV clients.
The SHLV Coordinator similarly reported positive experiences of her involvement with the
WCKFO and the participants. In addition, ‘Warrior Women’ complemented the SHLV work by
creating a more comprehensive recovery plan and addressed an aspect of recovery often
not attended to – the physiological impacts of trauma.
Despite the enthusiasm and positive reports provided by the participants, the trainers and
Key Stakeholders 1 and 2, other stakeholders raised some fundamental issues and
ideological differences about the appropriateness of self-defence courses/training for women
in general.
The SHLV Coordinator involved in setting up ‘Warrior Women’ left the organisation and the
new SHLV Coordinator (Key Stakeholder 3) had considerable concerns about the course9
.
She believed that such courses send dangerous messages by implying that women (and
particularly this group of women) can and should defend themselves against male violence.
It [self-defence] heightens expectations that they might be able to control men’s
violence
[Self-defence] doesn’t take into account differences in body strength between
men and women. What if a man is drunk and not aware of the consequences of
his actions?
Key Stakeholder 4 echoed these concerns about the symbolic messages that self-defence
classes may give to women who have been victims of DV:
Firstly, we need to be careful about giving women the message that it’s safe to fight
back – the safest thing generally in a DV situation is to run. Secondly, we need to be
clear that we are not giving the message that if women were stronger and tougher,
they wouldn’t have been abused. While I’m sure that neither of these messages were
the intention of Warrior Women, a self-defence program for women who have
experienced DV may carry these messages implicitly if not otherwise stated.
9
This change in staffing partly explains why an attempt to run a second ‘Warrior Women’ course for Redfern
SHLV clients was not successful.

30. 30
Key Stakeholder 3 was also concerned about the following issues:
I am worried about our duty of care – a worker would be devastated if something
happened to their client because they [the client] thought they could defend
themselves and then couldn’t.
A woman changing their usual behaviour may escalate violence as their ex-partner
may see it as moving further away from them.
The course is not theoretically relevant or suitable for DV.
There is ample evidence that the ‘Warrior Women’ course did focus on women leaving or
escaping from a dangerous situation at the earliest possible time, and substantial care was
taken to ensure that unrealistic expectations were not conveyed to course participants.
However, these are important warnings and support earlier suggestions that any course for
this particular group of participants requires explicit acknowledgement of the dynamics and
effects of DV on participants. These issues also underscore the importance of explicitly
considering the ways in which the course complements the case management work at SHLV
so that women receive consistent messages about DV and their safety.

31. 31
Realistically, any client from a SHLV (or other domestic violence) service can independently
source a self-defence course. Therefore, the issue for consideration in this report is whether
a SHLV service should promote and facilitate self-defence courses as an additional program
element.
The overall findings from this preliminary review suggest that while it may not be appropriate
for every SHLV client, a self-defence course such as ‘Warrior Women’ can be a positive
experience and another means by which to work with certain clients towards their recovery.
The trauma literature (for example, the work of internationally-recognised trauma therapists
Herman 1994 and van der Kolk 2009) details the ways in which traumatised people, and
specifically those who have experienced domestic violence, can be terrified of, and
disassociated from the sensations in their own bodies. Hence, the research evidence
suggests that some form of body-oriented psychotherapy or bodywork can assist trauma
survivors to regain a sense of safety in their bodies. There is also research evidence
supporting a range of physical strategies which facilitate women re-connecting with their
bodies post the trauma of domestic violence. In this respect, the ‘Warrior Women’ pilot
proved to be a successful intervention, with all participants reporting directly or indirectly that
the course contributed to feeling empowered and safer in a range of contexts.
The following recommendations build from the data analysis of the first ‘Warrior Women’
course and are offered for consideration when implementing any future self-defence course
for SHLV clients, and may also be applicable for other domestic violence services.
Recommendation 1 – Relevant SHLV staff should conceptually and practically support client
involvement.
The role of the SHLV Coordinator (and/or designated SHLV staff members) is crucial to the
successful planning and implementation of any self-defence course offered to clients. The
data demonstrate that the SHLV Coordinator must:
 have a theoretical commitment to providing self-defence courses for women
 assess, together with potential participants, whether they are ‘safe enough’
emotionally and physically to be able to join the course
 assess the appropriateness of a particular self-defence school prior to course
commencement

32. 32
 facilitate the engagement of trainers and participants to ensure that the course is
specifically tailored to the needs of women who have recently left a violent
relationship
 attend every course session to provide participant support and offer debriefings if
any individuals felt triggered by the course content
 monitor and manage the group dynamic during the course to maximise its potential
to become a social network for the participants and a self-help group after course
completion
 ensure SHLV clients who would like to participate in the course can do so, for
example, by providing child care.
Recommendation 2 – The trainers should be willing to offer more than their standard course.
The data comprehensively demonstrate that WCKFO had the capacity and willingness to
adapt their usual training to better respond to the needs of SHLV clients and work with the
DV worker to maximise course safety and effectiveness. As a result, ‘Warrior Women’ was
more than the usual self-defence course. The trainers were willing to incorporate discussions
about the possible contexts the participants may face; adapt the course delivery to the pace
of the group and facilitated de-briefings; and, offer discounted course fees and two free
individual training sessions to demonstrate their commitment to the participants. It may not
be possible for other self-defence schools to provide the same level of flexibility, sensitivity
and generosity as WCKFO. However, these attributes should be considered during the
screening and assessment of potential self-defence course providers.
Recommendation 3 – The course should be explicitly tailored to clients’ needs.
The key theme from this inquiry is the importance of adapting the course to meet the specific
needs of women who have left a DV relationship, including changes to the duration, content
and implementation. Specific suggestions include:
 modifying how self-defence skills and techniques are taught so that they do not re-
trigger trauma or cause panic attacks
 ensuring that the focus is on defensive techniques and how to get away from a
potentially dangerous situation
 allowing the participants to practice and perfect basic self-defence techniques first
before moving to more advanced techniques and strategies (e.g. dealing with
multiple attackers)

33. 33
 developing transitional exercises to allow the participants to build up their
involvement more gradually – for example, it may be helpful for trainers to try out all
moves prior to teaching them to consider if there is a way to make them less stressful
 holding trainer meetings and de-briefings with the SHLV Coordinator after the
sessions to discuss how to provide a more cohesive and responsive course program.
Recommendation 4 – Consider re-naming future courses to minimise misconceptions about
its intent.
The name of the course, ‘Warrior Women’, generated some controversy. While it was the
participants themselves who chose the name to reflect their achievement in surviving
domestic violence and embody their lived experience, for other external stakeholders (such
as Key Stakeholders 1 and 3) this meaning was not self-evident. Conversely, the name was
viewed as conveying vengeance and promoting an adversarial and combative focus. One
stakeholder suggested the possibility of changing the name of the course to something like
‘Body skills’ which she envisaged might be helpful in emphasising body image and strength,
rather than what she believed to be the negative and misunderstood focus portrayed by the
name ‘Warrior Women’. It may be that each course chooses a name that has meaning for
the particular participants involved. However, further consideration about how the course’s
name is portrayed and perceived is required.
Recommendation 5 – Future courses should build in an evaluation component prior to
course commencement.
The importance of evaluation for any program or individual program element cannot be over-
emphasised. The literature shows that there has been scant empirical investigation of self-
defence courses for women generally, let alone for this particular cohort of women. A mixed
methods inquiry where outcome measures are implemented would allow the mapping of
changes before, during and after the course. Two scales which respectively measure fear
(DePrince et al. 2012) and hope (Schrank et al. 2012) could be implemented pre-course
commencement, at course completion, and then at a later point in time to see if any changes
have been sustained. These scales correspond to the changes nominated by the ‘Warrior
Women’ participants’ pre-course survey and can be implemented with women attending a
self-defence course and receiving a service from SHLV, as well as a control group of women
receiving a service from SHLV only. Based on the effect sizes described by DePrince et al.
(2012), the evaluation would need a sample of 45 clients in order to detect any changes in
client feelings of fear. The evaluation hypothesis would predict that clients show a decrease
in fear and an increase in hope over time. Qualitative interviews with course participants

34. 34
would allow exploration of whether they perceive their feelings of hope and fear were
influenced predominantly by the course or by other aspects of the SHLV service.
This evaluation design would also offset concerns that we can only know what those
participants intending to attend the course want to tell us about ‘Warrior Women’ – the
inference being that those women who do not attend the course may have different, perhaps
negative perceptions of self-defence. This kind of constraint in data collection can be
reasonably made in relation to any research project, and it does not necessarily negate the
experiences and perceptions expressed by the participants who eventually attended the
course. However, it does underscore the need to be mindful of generalising attitudes and
beliefs expressed by the ‘Warrior Women’ participants to all SHLV clients.
Last, the unit cost per participant is reasonably small – approximately A$180 per woman per
8 session course with an additional two sessions free of charge provided to individual
participants. If a mixed methods evaluation is able to confirm the above-mentioned
hypothesis of a decrease in fear and an increase in hopefulness as a result of participation in
this type of self-defence course, then the investment in this additional program element
would be more than justified and could be provided by marginally increasing the brokerage
allowed for each individual SHLV client.

35. 35
10
SHLV aims to provide an integrated service response to women who have separated from a
violent partner but intend to remain in the family home or another home of their choice.
SHLV provides specialised referral, case coordination, case management and limited
brokerage for increasing client safety by upgrading home security provisions. The program is
designed to prevent homelessness as a result of domestic violence by enabling clients to
remain safely in their home and have the perpetrator removed/kept away through the
intervention of the courts and police. The program is funded and overseen by the
Department of Family and Community Services and it is implemented through a range of
local service providers. SHLV provides comprehensive risk assessment and risk
management plans, case plans and partner/organisational education regarding the dynamics
of domestic and family violence (DFV) in order to maximise the safety of victims of domestic
and family violence. The SHLV project worker develops partnerships with key stakeholders
to ensure effective services are delivered to clients, including appropriate legal responses,
assessment, counselling and group work services and income maintenance. The SHLV
project worker also aims to increase the capacity that stakeholders have to enable DFV
victims to stay home safely and raise awareness of alternative accommodation options for
the excluded person.
Whilst a wide range of individual client supports are provided through the personalised case
management process, the program’s primary focus is safety planning, home safety audits
and upgrades, and contributing to a coordinated justice response to domestic violence. The
projects support women to apply for Apprehended Violence Orders (AVOs), Exclusion
Orders and liaise closely with the courts and police. Limited brokerage is focused on home
security upgrades. Eligibility criteria are broad, encompassing any woman (and her children)
escaping domestic violence who has separated from the perpetrator. SHLV is primarily a
justice, police and safety response to women in present danger. It is available to any woman
escaping domestic violence without an income or assets test. At the time of writing, there are
21 SHLV projects across NSW, which leaves some geographical areas without
access. However, there are plans to extend the services to 6 additional locations.
10
For more information about the Staying Home Leaving Violence program, see the Program Overview at
http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docswr/_assets/main/documents/shlv_overview.pdf [accessed 15 July
2014].

36. 36
The Wing Chun Kung Fu Organisation (WCKFO) is a full-time Martial Arts School, which has
been operating in Surry Hills since 1986. The Chief Instructor is ‘Sifu’ Rick Spain, a
recognised Master of Wing Chun Kung Fu. The two other instructors involved in offering the
‘Warrior Women’ course were Amy Spain and Frances Straumietis. Both are senior
Instructors, highly skilled and experienced in martial arts.
The stated values of WCKFO are ‘Family – Honour – Loyalty’, and the Mission Statement of
the School is ‘Excellence without Compromise’. The WCKFO website
(http://www.wingchunway.com/) urges participants to “believe that you can become all that
you desire, our mission is to get you there”. Specifically, WCKFO states that training at
WCKFO will increase participant’s fitness, co-ordination and confidence.
Stated outcomes include:
 The capacity to recognise your ability to defend yourself
 Acceptance that boundaries will be regularly challenged
 Ideas and concepts can and will be constantly expanded.

37. 37
11
Only hard copy documents were available for this Appendix.

38. 38

39. 39

40. 40

41. 41

42. 42
Brecklin, L., and S. Ullman (2004) ‘Correlates of Post assault Self-Defense/Assertiveness
Training Participation for Sexual Assault Survivors’, Psychology of Women Quarterly,
28, pp. 147-158.
Cahill, A. (2009) ‘In Defense of Self-Defense’, Philosophical Papers, 38 (3), pp.363-380.
Campbell, J. (2002) ‘Health consequences of intimate partner violence’, The Lancet, 359
(9314), pp. 1331-1336.
Council of Australian Governments 2010, National Plan to Reduce Violence Against Women
and their Children, including the first three year Action Plan, Canberra: Council of
Australian Governments.
DePrince, A. P., J. Belknap, J. S. Labus, S. E. Buckingham and A. R. Gover (2012) ‘The
impact of victim-focused outreach on criminal legal system outcomes following
police-reported intimate partner abuse’, Violence against women, 18 (8), pp. 861-
881.
De Welde, K. (2003) ‘Getting physical – Subverting gender through self-defense’, Journal of
Contemporary Ethnography, 32 (3), pp. 247-278.
Fishman, P. A., A. E. Bonomi, M. L. Anderson, R.J. Reid and F.P. Rivara (2010) ‘Changes in
health care costs over time following the cessation of intimate partner violence’,
Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25 (9), pp. 920-925.
Fraser, K.L., and G.M. Russell (2000) ‘The role of the group in acquiring self-defense skills:
Results of a qualitative study’, Small Group Research, 31 (4), pp. 397-423.
Heise, L. and C. Garcia-Moreno (2002) ‘Violence by Intimate Partners’, in E. G. Krug et al.
(eds.) World report on violence and health, Geneva: World Health Organization, pp.
87-121.
Herman, J. (1994) Trauma and recovery: From domestic abuse to political terror.
London: Pandora.
Hollander, J. (2001) ‘Vulnerability and dangerousness: The Construction of Gender through
Conversation about Violence’, Gender & Society, 15 (1), pp. 83-109.
Hollander, J. (2004) ‘’’I Can Take Care of Myself’’: The Impact of Self-Defense Training on
Women’s Lives’, Violence Against Women, 10 (3), pp. 205-235.
Hollander, J. (2009) ‘The Roots of Resistance to Women’s Self-Defense’, Violence Against
Women, 15 (5), pp. 574-594.
Hollander, J. (2010) ‘Why Do Women Take Self-Defense Classes?’, Violence Against
Women, 16 (4), pp. 459-478.

43. 43
Johnson, M. P. (2008) A typology of domestic violence: intimate terrorism, violent
resistance, and situational couple violence. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
Johnston, L., S.M. Hudson and M.J. Richardson et al. (2004) ‘Changing kinematics as a
means of reducing vulnerability to physical attack’, Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 34 (3), pp. 514-537.
Kennedy, A. C., D. Bybee, C. M. Sullivan and M. Greeson (2010). ‘The impact of family and
community violence on children’s depression trajectories: Examining the interactions
of violence exposure, family social support, and gender’, Journal of Family
Psychology, 24 (2), pp.197-207.
Madden, M. (1995) ‘Perceived Vulnerability and Control of Martial Arts and Physical Fitness
Students’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80 (3), pp.899-910.
Mardorossian, C.M. (2003) ‘Book reviews – Rape on the Public Agenda: Feminism and the
Politics of Sexual Assault; Rethinking Rape; and New Versions of Victims: Feminists
Struggle with the Concept’, Signs, 29 (1), p. 265.
McDaniel, P. (1993) ‘Self-Defense Training and Women’s Fear of Crime’, Women’s Studies
International Forum, 16 (1), pp. 37-45.
Mouzos, J., and T. Makkai (2004) Women’s experiences of male violence: findings from the
Australian component of the International Violence Against Women Survey,
Research and Public Policy Series No. 56, Australian Institute of Criminology.
Okun, L. (1986) Woman abuse: facts replacing myths. Albany: State University of New
York Press.
Schrank, B., V. Bird, V. Rudnick and M. Slade (2012) ‘Determinants, self-management
strategies and interventions for hope in people with mental disorders: Systematic
search and narrative review’ Social Science & Medicine, 74 (4), pp. 554-564.
Spinney, A., and S. Blandy (2011) Homelessness Prevention for Women and Children who
have Experienced Domestic and Family Violence: Innovations in Policy and Practice,
Melbourne: Australian Housing and Research Institute.
Stark, E. (2007) Coercive control: the entrapment of women in personal life. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Sullivan, C. (2011) ‘Evaluating domestic violence support service programs: Waste
of time, necessary evil, or opportunity for growth?’, Aggression and Violent
Behavior, 16 (4), pp. 354-360.
Ullman, S. (2007) ‘A 10 year update of “Review and Critique of Empirical Studies of Rape
Avoidance”’, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34 (3), pp. 411-429.
van der Kolk, B. (2009) ‘Yoga and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: An interview with Bessel
van der Kolk, MD’, Integral Yoga Magazine, Summer 2009, pp. 12-13, available at
http://integralyogamagazine.org/yoga-and-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/ (accessed
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VicHealth and Department of Human Services Victoria (2004) The Health Costs of Violence:
Measuring the Burden of Disease Caused by Intimate Partner Violence, Melbourne:
Government of Victoria.