gender

1. GENDER AND FEMINISM
TAHSINA AKHTER
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
 Introduction
 Some historical examples of women’s
subordination
 What we understand by Gender
 Feminism
 Women and Development Dialogues

2. INTRODUCTION
 1840, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, wife of Henry
Brewster Stanton along with Lucretia Mott were
barred at the World Anti-Slavery Convention,
because they were women.
 1848, at Seneca Falls, New York, the 1st
women’s rights gathering was held. They
discussed the issues of discrimination of black
and women on property rights, enter into
business, testify against their husbands or legal
voting.

3. CONTINUE
 1865, 13th Amendment to the Constitution
outlawed slavery in the United States and
citizenship to all African-Americans (14th
Amendment) were accepted.
 However, only black men were granted voting
right.
 Women of all races were denied suffrage.
 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and other feminists
created the National Women Suffrage
Association and in 1920 women were granted
right to vote (19th Amendment to the
Constitution).

4. HISTORICAL STARTING OF WOMEN STUDIES
 Traditional Status of women
 Matriarchal.
 In religion and written history: male dominance was
there, women were ‘weaker’ and ‘inferior’ to men.
 Women were at disadvantage.
 Education was limited to domestic skills, no access
to position or power.
 Marriage was a necessity for protection and for
reproduction, mainly for male heirs.

5. BEGINNING OF CHANGE
 Age of Renaissance and Enlightment:
Industrial revolution , brought about
enormous economic and social change,
providing a favorable climate for the rise of
feminism.
 Mary Wollstonecraft, A vindication of the
rights of women (1792), the 1st major feminist
work, demanding equality in an unflinchingly
revolutionary tone.

6.  Women could work but husbands legally
controlled their pay, even though the
payment was lower.
 1800s, new phase of change.
 India abolished ‘sati’ ( self-immolation of
widows) and legalized inter-caste marriage.
 France recognized women’s right to divorce.
 China allowed women to hold office.

7. AFTER 1848
 British feminists convened in 1855 the goal of
property right.
 Publication of the ‘The Subjection of Women’
(1869)- John Stuart Mill (influenced by
discussions with his wife, Harriet Taylor Mill).
 Colleges were found for women (such as Girton
in 1869, at Cambridge University).
 1870, married women’s property right acts were
passed in England and in several times in
United States.

8. CONT.
 Later, provisions were made for divorce,
maintenance payments, child support.
 The suffragette movement , from 1800 to
1930, brought together women from a
diversity of social and educational
backgrounds in the context of winning the
vote.

9. 20TH CENTURY
 Suffrage was the primary goal of British and
American feminists at that time encountering
substantial resistance.
 1893, New Zealand was the 1st country to give
women the right to vote.
 Right to vote of women elsewhere in the world
was only granted after World War I.
 China (1949) and Russia (1917) discouraged
patriarchal family system and supported sexual
equality, including birth control.

10. CONT.
 Sweden, in 1930, established wide-ranging
programs of equal rights for women, which
included extensive child-care arrangements.
 In Britain and the United States, progress
was comparatively slower.
 After1960s, lower infant mortality rates,
soaring adult life expectancy, and availability
of contraceptive pill gave women greater
freedom from child care responsibilities.

11. CONT.
 Divorce rates were rising.
 More women propelled to the job market.
 Women’s movements questioned social
institutions and moral values.
 Key texts were: The Second Sex( 1949) by
Simone de Beauvoir; The Feminine Mystique
( 1963) by Betty Friedan; The Female
Eunuch ( 1970) by Germaine Greer; and of
Women Born ( 1976) by Adrienne Rich.

12. GENDER AND SEX
 The words sex and gender are commonly used
interchangeably, but many linguists would argue
that their usage is quite distinct. Sex refers to
the biological and physiological characteristics,
while gender refers to behaviors, roles,
expectations, and activities in society.
Sex refers to male or female, while gender
refers to masculine or feminine.
The differences in the sexes do not vary
throughout the world, but differences in gender
do.

13.  Another way of putting it is:
Sex refers to a natural or biological feature.
Gender refers to cultural or learned significance of sex.
According to Medilexicon's medical dictionary:
 Sex is "The biologic character or quality that distinguishes
male and female from one another as expressed by
analysis of the person's gonadal, morphologic (internal
and external), chromosomal, and hormonal
characteristics."
Gender is "The category to which an individual is
assigned by self or others, on the basis of sex."

14.  The word gender comes from Middle English
gendre, which came from Old French, which
in turn came from the Latin word genus,
meaning 'kind', 'type', or 'sort'.
The word sex probably comes from Middle
English, meaning 'section' or 'divide'. In Latin
the word sex means the number 'six'.

15. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEX AND
GENDER: SUMMARY
• Sex depends on the anatomy. Gender depends
on the society or culture.
• Male and female are sex categories. Masculine
and feminine are gender categories.
• Sex characteristics do not vary substantially
between different human societies. Gender
characteristics do vary greatly between different
human societies.
So a gender difference is due to nurture, and a
sex difference is due to nature.

16. DR. ROBERT STOLLER
 Dr. Robert Stoller, an American psychoanalyst,
was the 1st person to make distinction between
the terms ‘ Gender’ and ‘Sex’ in 1968.
 He said, ‘Gender is a term that has
psychological and cultural connotations , if the
proper terms for sex are “male” and “female”,
the corresponding terms for gender are
“masculine” and “feminine”; these latter might
be quite independent of (biological) sex’. ( Cited
in Sociology; Haralambos and Holborn 1991:
521)

17. FEMINISM
The term ‘feminism’ has many different uses and its meanings are of
contested. For example, some writers use the term ‘feminism’ to refe
historically specific political movement in the US and Europe; other w
use it to refer to the belief that there are injustices against women. In
mid-1800s the term ‘feminism’ was used to refer to “the qualities of
females”, and it was not until after the First International Women's
Conference in Paris in 1892 that the term, following the French term
féministe, was used regularly in English for a belief in and advocacy
equal rights for women based on the idea of the equality of the sexes

18.  Defining Feminism
There are variations on the definitions of
feminism depending on the perspectives each
scholar perceived. Yet we can define a basic
definition by J. J. Macionis (1992:248):
‘…feminism is the advocacy of social equality
for the sexes, in opposition to patriarchy and
sexism.’

19.  Liberal Feminism
 Radical Feminism
 Marxist Feminism
 Socialist Feminism

20. LIBERAL FEMINISM
 Reason and rationality at its center.
Different
aspects
Reason REASON
MORAL
ASPECTS
PRUDENTIAL
ASPECTS

21. LIBERAL FEMINIST THEORY: 18TH CENTURY
Mary Wollstonecraft
(1759-1799) A
Vindication of the
rights of Woman
Industrial
Revolution
Separation of production
from home and family
School
of
Political
thought
Emergence
of formal
economically
unproductive
women
Home based , married,
bourgeois, privileged
women
18th
century:
equal
education,
persohood
Lack of
capability of
developing
own powers
of reason
Education can help
emancipation of those
unconscious feathered
cased women
Critiques

22. 19TH CENTURY
Equal Political Rights and Economic
Opportunities
John Stuart Mill (1869) The Subjection
of Women
Harriet Taylor(1851) Enfranchisement
of Women
 Betty Friedan was the founder and first
president of the National Organization for
Women (NOW)
 The Feminist Mystique (1974)

23. RADICAL FEMINIST THOUGHT
 Revolutionary Changes
 Alison Jaggar and Paula Rothenberg’s
claims (46-47, Tong)
 Kate Millett : Sexual Politics(1970) Men and
women relationship is Political relationship ;
power relation
 Shulamith Firestone: Dialectic of Sex
 Marilyn French
 Mary daly

24. RADICAL FEMINISM: AT A GLANCE
Radical-Libertarian Feminism Radical-Cultural Feminism
Kate Millett Shulamith
Firestone
Marilyn French Mary Daly
Sexual Politics
1972
Dialectic of Sex
1970
Beyond Power:
On Women, Men
and Morals
1985
Beyond God the
father: Toward a
Philosophy of
Women’s
liberation
1973
Power Relation,
Sex is Political
Major biological
and social
revolution
Nature and
nurture is
claimed for the
differences.
Rejects the
terms of
masculinity and
feminity as they
are the creation
of patriarchy.
Patriarchy
Constructed;
Artificial
reproduction to
She wishes from
‘’Power Over’’ to
Wants to re-
interpret

25. MARXIST AND SOCIALIST FEMINISM
Men
and
Women
Creates
Colectively
Society
Again Re-
shapes

26. Marxist Socialist
Richard Schmitt Juliet Mitchell, Iris Young, Alison
Jaggar
Pay respect to Marx and Engles and
19th century thinkers.
Twentieth Century thinkers like
Althusser and Habermas
Classism, not sexism. Capitalism and Patriarchy.

27. GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
 Gender-based violence is violence against
women based on women’s subordinate status in
society. It includes any act or threat by men or
male dominated institutions that inflict physical,
sexual, or psychological harm on a woman or
girl because of their gender. In most cultures,
traditional beliefs, norms and social institutions
legitimize and therefore perpetuate violence
against women

28. CYCLE OF VIOLENCE
 First identified by psychologist Lenore Walker, in
the late 1970‘s, the “cycle of violence” refers to
a continuing cyclical pattern of abuse. It begins
with the extreme build up of tension in the home
which the victim can clearly feel. It is followed by
a violent and abusive release and is completed
with extreme contriteness along with apparent
remorse on the part of the batterer. Many
batterers engage in this pattern repeatedly and
it can take days, weeks, or months to complete
each cycle.

29. CYCLE OF VIOLENCE

30. Nine Types of Violence and Abuse
Physical Violence
Physical violence occurs
when someone uses a part
of their body or an object to
control a person’s actions.
Sexual Violence
Sexual violence occurs
when a person is forced to
unwillingly take part in
sexual activity.
Emotional Violence
Emotional violence occurs
when someone says or
does something to make a
person feel stupid or
worthless.
Psychological Violence
Psychological violence
occurs when someone uses
threats and causes fear in
an individual to gain control.
Spiritual Violence
Spiritual (or religious)
violence occurs when
someone uses an
individual’s spiritual beliefs
to manipulate, dominate or
control that person.
Cultural Violence
Cultural violence occurs
when an individual is
harmed as a result of
practices that are part of her
or his culture, religion or
tradition.
Verbal Abuse
Verbal abuse occurs when
someone uses language,
whether spoken or written,
Financial Abuse
Financial abuse occurs
when someone controls an
individual’s financial
Neglect
Neglect occurs when
someone has the
responsibility to provide

31. TYPES OF VIOLENCE
Level Physical Cultural Structural
Family Beating, child/force
labor, calling names,
intimidation,
imprisonment,
depriving from food
Deprivation of girls
from education, not
allowing children to
express their ideas,
unhealthy cultural
values and tradition,
superstition
Spirit of indifference,
malnutrition, poverty
at family level, not to
express opinion.
School Beating, power
abuse
Message of hatred,
using students as
object
No school facility for
all
National Sexual, killing,
kidnapping, torture,
isolation, beating
Lack of free media
access,
discrimination in
recruiting govt.
Employment,
poverty cycle,
criminal economy,
low role for women
in govt. & state
position
Weak civil society,
unjust distribution of
resources,
deprivation of
people from civil,
economic and
political rights.

32. CAUSES
Society Community Relationship Individual
perpetrator
Norms granting
men control over
female behavior
Poverty, low
socioeconomic
status,
unemployment
Marital conflict Witnessing marital
violence as a child
Acceptance of
violence as a way
to resolve conflict
Associating with
peers who
condone violence
Male control of
wealth and
decision-making
in the family
Absent or
rejecting father
Notion of
masculinity linked
to dominance,
honor and
aggression
Isolation of
women and family
Being abused as
a child

33. CONSEQUENCES
Physical Sexual and reproductive
acute or immediate physical injuries,
such as bruises, abrasions,
lacerations, punctures, burns and
bites, as well as fractures and broken
bones or teeth
• more serious injuries, which can lead
to disabilities, including injuries to the
head, eyes, ears, chest and abdomen
• gastrointestinal conditions, long-term
health problems and poor health
status, including chronic pain
syndromes
• death, including femicide and
AIDSrelated death
• unintended/unwanted pregnancy
• abortion/unsafe abortion
• sexually transmitted infections,
including HIV
• pregnancy complications/miscarriage
• vaginal bleeding or infections
• chronic pelvic infection
• urinary tract infections
• fistula (a tear between the vagina
and bladder, rectum, or both)
• painful sexual intercourse
• sexual dysfunction
Mental Behavioural
Depression
• sleeping and eating disorders
• harmful alcohol and substance use
• multiple sexual partners

34. ATTEMPTS TO REDUCE VIOLENCE
 Medical, Social, Psychological and legal
counseling through government agencies,
NGO (providing both psycho-social and legal
counseling and leisure activities)
 Social agencies like family, friends, relatives,
neighbors, religion, counselors have greater
role to combat violence in the society as a
whole.

35. The origins of WID, “Women in Development”
Of seminal importance = Ester Boserup’s
Women’s Role in Economic Development
(1970), a comparative analysis of women’s
work :
 Gender a basic factor in the division of
labour
 Women’s labour at home and on the farm
generally under-reported
 Analysed some of the reasons for regional
differences (e.g. in different farming systems)
 Related these to participation in off-farm
employment and labour migration
 Highlighted the negative impacts of
colonialism and the penetration of capitalism
(see also Boserup in Tinker 1990)
Boserup’s study put gender on the development agenda.
Later criticised for its oversimplification of the nature of women’s work and
roles (Beneria and Sen in Visvanathan 1997)
2. The development of WID
David Sneath & Martin Walsh

36. The establishment of WID
WID perspective was developed by American liberal feminists. “WID” was the
name of a women’s caucus formed by the Society for International
Development (SID/WID); part of a deliberate strategy to bring gender issues to
the attention of policy-makers
Important role also played by the UN Commission on the Status of Women (>
UN Decade for Women 1976-85) (see Tinker 1990)
Emphasis on strategies that would minimize discrimination against women
and their disadvantaged economic position. This approach was closely linked
to and represented a modification of the modernisation paradigm: concern
that the benefits of modernisation should be for women as well as men
>The solutions to women’s problems were generally envisaged as
“technological fixes” of one kind or another. Focus on the better integration
of women into existing development initiatives. Typical WID projects were
income-generating activities with social and welfare components added (cf.
Moser’s (1989; 1993) refined typology of WID approaches: welfare, gender equality,
anti-poverty, efficiency, and empowerment)
2. The development of WID

37. WID and WAD
One source of these criticisms was the emerging neo-Marxism of the time.
Just as the modernisation paradigm was attacked by dependency theorists,
so WID was criticised by neo-Marxist feminists espousing an approach
sometimes referred to as WAD, “Women and Development” (Beneria and Sen
1982; Rathgeber 1990)
Neo-Marxist feminists focused on analysing women’s subordination within
the structures of international dependency and class inequality
(e.g. Young et al. 1981; Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World
Scale,1986)
But their analyses and prescriptions shared in many of the shortcomings of
WID. Given that both sexes are seen to be disadvantaged in neo-Marxist
accounts, insufficient attention was paid to the special features of women’s
situation, e.g. the role of ideology of patriarchy; the importance of the labour
invested by women in household reproduction and maintenance (cf. Kabeer
1994). And there wasn’t much difference between WID and WAD-influenced
development strategies, at least not as far a women were concerned. Both
reflected Western biases and assumptions (cf. Barbara Rogers, The
Domestication of Women, 1980)
3. Shortcomings of WID (and WAD)

38. 4. The development of GAD
Kate Young, ‘Gender and Development’, 1992 (in Visvanathan et al. 1997):
overview of the differences between WID and GAD. These include:
 GAD focuses on gender relations rather than women per se
 GAD views women as active rather than passive agents of development,
though they may be unaware of the roots of their subordination
 GAD starts from a holistic perspective, the totality of social organisation,
and economic and political life (vs a focus on particular aspects of women’s
lives, e.g. economic production)
 GAD stresses the need for women’s self-organisation to increase their
political power within the economic system (vs WID which emphasises the
formation of productive groups and access to cash income as group
members or individuals)
 GAD is less optimistic about the role of the market as a distributor of
benefits to women but places equal emphasis on the role of the state in
promoting women’s emancipation
Is GAD gendered modernisation in socialist clothing?

39. 5. Shortcomings of GAD (and WID and WAD)
Critiques from the South
Some of the sharpest criticism
of GAD and its precursors has
come from women in the
South, arguing that they reflect
the preoccupations and
assumptions of Western
feminists. ‘Third World’
women are ‘homogenised’ and
treated as ‘victims’ of their own
cultures, negating their
agency. These critics argue
instead that their
subordination is a
consequence of colonial and
post-colonial exploitation
rather than the cultural
construction of gender in their
own societies (Sen and Grown
1987)
These critiques from the South connect
with postmodern analyses of WID and
GAD discourse as a component of
mainstream development discourse (e.g.
Escobar 1995). But the relevance of
postmodernist academic theorising is
also questioned by some critics of GAD…

40. WOMEN ,ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(WED)
 Origin in 1970s (Northern Feminist )
 Male control over nature and women
 Ecofeminism
 Ecofeminist (Rosi Braidotti, Harcourt, Maria Mies,
Vandana Shiva etc.)
 Theoretical stream within feminist movement
 Environment decline – patriarchal authority in
Development planning
 Destroying relationship between community, women
and nature