The document discusses the evolution of international monetary systems throughout history. It begins by defining money and its three main functions. It then outlines several international monetary systems: bimetallism before 1875; the classical gold standard from 1875-1914; the unstable interwar period from 1915-1944; the Bretton Woods system from 1945-1972, which pegged currencies to the US dollar; and the current flexible exchange rate regime since 1973. The Bretton Woods system collapsed in the early 1970s due to US economic policies undermining the dollar-gold peg. Overall, the document traces the progression of global exchange rate regimes over time.

1. International
Monetary System

2. What is money?
– A current medium of exchange in the form of coins and
banknotes; coins and banknotes collectively
– Any good that is widely accepted in exchange of goods and
services, as well as payment of debts.

3. Three functions of money :
1. Medium of exchange – money used for buying and selling goods
and services
2. Unit of account – common standard for measuring relative worth of
goods and services
3. Store of value – convenient way to store wealth

4. International Monetary System
 International monetary systems are sets of internationally
agreed rules, conventions and supporting institutions, that
facilitate international trade, cross border investment and
generally there allocation of capital between nation states.
 International monetary system refers to the system
prevailing in world foreign exchange markets through
which international trade and capital movement are
financed and exchange rates are determined.

5. • It defines over all financial environment in which multinational corporation
operate. The IMS consist of elements such as laws, rules, agreements,
institutions, and procedures which affect foreign exchange rates, balance of
payments adjustments, international trade and capital flows. This system
evolves in the future as the international business and political environment of
the world economy continues to change. The IMS plays a role in the financial
management of a multinational business and economic and financial policies
of each country.

6. Features that IMS should possess
 Efficient and unrestricted flow of international trade and
investment.
 Stability in foreign exchange aspects.
 Promoting Balance of Payments adjustments to prevent
disruptions associated.
 Providing countries with sufficient liquidity to finance
temporary balance of payments deficits.
 Should at least try avoid adding further uncertainty.
 Allowing member countries to pursue independent monetary
and fiscal policies.

7. Requirements of good international monetary system
 Adjustment : a good system must be able to adjust imbalances in
balance of payments quickly and at a relatively lower cost;
 Stability and Confidence: the system must be able to keep exchange
rates relatively fixed and people must have confidence in the stability
of the system;
 Liquidity: the system must be able to provide enough reserve assets for
a nation to correct its balance of payments deficits without making the
nation run into deflation or inflation.

8. STAGES IN INTERNATIONAL MONETARY
SYSTEM
1. Bimetallism: Before 1875
2. Classical Gold Standard: 1875-1914
3. Interwar Period: 1915-1944
4. Bretton Woods System: 1945-1972
4. The Flexible Exchange Rate Regime: 1973-Present

9. Bimetallism: Before 1875
o A “double standard” in the sense that both gold and silver
were used as money.
o Some countries were on the gold standard, some on the
silver standard, some on both.
o Both gold and silver were used as international means of
payment and the exchange rates among currencies were
determined by either their gold or silver contents.
o Gresham’s Law implied that it would be the least valuable
metal that would tend to circulate.

10. Gresham’s Law
Gresham's law is an economic principle that states:
"if coins containing metal of different value have the
same value as legal tender, the coins composed of the
cheaper metal will be used for payment, while those
made of more expensive metal will be hoarded or
exported and thus tend to disappear from circulation.”
It is commonly stated as: "“Bad” (abundant) money
drives out “Good” (scarce) money”

11. Gresham’s Law Contd…
The law was named in 1860 by Henry Dunning
Macleod, after Sir Thomas Gresham (1519–1579),
who was an English financier during the Tudor
dynasty. However, there are numerous predecessors.
The law had been stated earlier by Nicolaus
Copernicus; for this reason, it is occasionally known as
the Copernicus Law.

12. Image of first United States gold coin - the 1795
Gold Eagle.

14. During this period in most major countries:
• Gold alone was assured of unrestricted coinage
• There was two-way convertibility between gold and national
currencies at a stable ratio.
• Gold could be freely exported or imported.
The exchange rate between two country’s currencies
would be determined by their relative gold contents.
Gold Standard

15. Rules of the system
 Each country defined the value of its currency in terms
of gold.
 Exchange rate between any two currencies was
calculated as X currency per ounce of gold/ Y currency
per ounce of gold.
 These exchange rates were set by arbitrage depending
on the transportation costs of gold.
 Central banks are restricted in not being able to issue
more currency than gold reserves.

16. Classical Gold Standard : Exchange rate determination
For example, if the dollar is pegged to gold at U.S.$30 =
1 ounce of gold, and the British pound is pegged to gold
at £6 = 1 ounce of gold, it must be the case that the
exchange rate is determined by the relative gold contents
$30 = £6
$5 = £1

17. Classical Gold Standard:
 Highly stable exchange rates under the classical
gold standard provided an environment that was
favorable to international trade and investment
 Misalignment of exchange rates and international
imbalances of payment were automatically
corrected by the price-specie-flow mechanism.

18. Price-Specie-Flow Mechanism
Suppose Great Britain exported more to France than France
imported from Great Britain.
– Net export of goods from Great Britain to France will be
accompanied by a net flow of gold from France to Great
Britain.
– This flow of gold will lead to a lower price level in France
and, at the same time, a higher price level in Britain.
The resultant change in relative price levels will slow exports from
Great Britain and encourage exports from France.

19. Arguments in Favor of a Gold Standard
Price Stability.
By tying the money supply to the supply of
gold, central banks are unable to expand the
money supply.
Facilitates BOP adjustment automatically
price-specie-flow mechanism

20. Arguments against Gold Standard
The growth of output and the growth of gold
supplies are closely linked.
Volatility in the supply of gold could cause adverse
shocks to the economy,
In practice monetary authorities may not be forced to
strictly tie their hands in limiting the creation of
money.
Countries with respectable monetary policy makers
cannot use monetary policy to fight domestic issues
like unemployment.

21. Decline of the gold standard
• There are several rules why the gold standard could not function well over the
long period. One problem involved the price specie flow mechanism. For this
mechanism to function effectively certain ‘rules of thumb’. One rule is that the
currencies must be valued in terms of gold. Another rule is that the flow of
gold between countries cannot be restricted. The last rule requires the
issuances of notes in some fixed relationship to a country’s gold holdings.
• Because the gold is a scare commodity, gold volume could not grow fast
enough to allow adequate amounts of money to be created to finance the
growth of world trade. The problem was further gold was taken out for art and
industrial consumption.

23. Interwar Period: 1915-1944
 Exchange rates fluctuated as countries widely used
“predatory” depreciations of their currencies as a
means of gaining advantage in the world export
market.
 Attempts were made to restore the gold standard, but
participants lacked the political will to “follow the
rules of the game”
 The world economy characterized by tremendous
instability and eventually economic breakdown, what
is known as the Great Depression (1929– 39)

24. Interwar Period: 1915-1944
International Economic Disintegration
– Many countries suffered during the Great Depression.
– Major economic harm was done by restrictions on international
trade and payments.
– These beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation
and led to the disintegration of the world economy.
– All countries’ situations could have been bettered through
international cooperation
• Bretton Woods agreement

25. • The role of Great Britain as the world’s major creditor nation also came to an end after the 1 world
war. The united states began to assume the role of leading creditor nation. As countries began to
recover from the war and stabilize their economies they made several attempts to return to gold
standard. The US returned to gold in 1919 and UK in 1925. countries like Switzerland, France and
Scandinavian countries restored the gold standard by 1928.
• The key currency involved in the attempt to restore the international gold standard was the pound
sterling which returned to gold in 1925. This was a great mistake since the UK had experienced
considerably more inflation rather than the US and because UK had liquidated most of its foreign
investment in financing the war. The result was increased unemployment and economic stagnation in
Britain.

26. • In 1934, the US returned to a modified gold standard and the US dollar was
devalued from the previous. The modified gold standard was known as Gold
exchange standard. Under this standard the US traded gold only with foreign
central bank not with private citizens. World war II also resulted in many of
the world’s major currencies losing their convertibility. The only major
currency that continued to remain convertibility was the dollar.
• Thus the inter war period was characterized by half heartedly attempts and
failures to restore the gold standard, economic and political instability widely
fluctuation exchange rates, bank failure and financial crisis. The great
depression in 1929 and the stock market crash also resulted in the collapse of
many banks.

28. Bretton Woods System: 1945- 1972
 Named for a 1944 meeting of 44 nations at Bretton
Woods, New Hampshire.
 The purpose was to design a postwar international
monetary system.
 The goal was exchange rate stability without the gold
standard.

29. Resulted in ;
The result was the creation of the IMF and the World Bank
1. IMF: maintain order in monetary system
2. International bank for reconstruction and development
World Bank: promote general economic
development

30. Features of Bretton Woods System
 Under the Bretton Woods system, the U.S. dollar was pegged
to gold at $35 per ounce and other currencies were pegged to
the U.S. dollar.
 Each country was responsible for maintaining its exchange
rate fixed : within ±1% of the adopted par value by buying
or selling foreign reserves as necessary.
 The Bretton Woods system was a dollar-based gold exchange
standard.

31. Bretton Woods System:1945-1972
Par value / pegged exchange rate system
German
mark
British
pound
French
franc
Par
V
alue
U.S. dollar
Pegged at $35/oz.
Gold

32. The Demise of the Bretton Woods System
• In the early post-war period, the U.S. government had to provide
dollar reserves to all countries who wanted to intervene in their
currency markets.
• The increasing supply of dollars worldwide, made available
through programs like the Marshall Plan, meant that the credibility
of the gold backing of the dollar was in question.
• U.S. dollars held abroad grew rapidly and this represented a claim
on U.S. gold stocks and cast some doubt on the U.S.’s ability to
convert dollars into gold upon request.

33. The Demise of the Bretton Woods System
• Domestic U.S. policies, such as the growing
expenditure associated with Vietnam resulted in
more printing of dollars to finance expenditure and
forced foreign governments to run up holdings of
dollar reserves.
• The dollar was overvalued in the 1960s
• In 1971, the U.S. government “closed the gold
window” by decree of President Nixon.

34. The Demise of the Bretton Woods System
• The world moved from a gold standard to a dollar standard
from Bretton Woods to the Smithsonian Agreement.
Growing increase in the amount of dollars printed further
eroded faith in the system and the dollars role as a reserve
currency.
• By 1973, the world had moved to search for a new financial
system: one that no longer relied on a worldwide system of
pegged exchange rates.

35. Smithsonian Agreement
An agreement reached by a group of 10 countries (G10) in
1971 that effectively ended the fixed exchange rate system
established under the Bretton Woods Agreement.
The Smithsonian Agreement reestablished an international
system of fixed exchange rates without the backing of silver or
gold, and allowed for the devaluation of the U.S. dollar. This
agreement was the first time in which currency exchange rates
were negotiated.

37. The Flexible Exchange Rate Regime
Flexible exchange rates were declared acceptable to
the IMF members.
• Central banks were allowed to intervene in the exchange
rate markets to iron out unwarranted volatilities.
Gold was abandoned as an international reserve
asset.
The currencies are no longer backed by gold

38. Current Exchange Rate Arrangements
• Free Float
• The largest number of countries, about 48, allow market forces to
determine their currency’s value.
• Managed Float
• About 25 countries combine government intervention with market forces to
set exchange rates.
• Pegged to another currency
• Such as the U.S. dollar or euro etc..
• No national currency
• Some countries do not bother printing their own, they just use the U.S.
dollar. For example, Ecuador, Panama, and have dollarized.

39. “give a man a fish and you feed him
for a day; teach a man to fish and
you feed him for a lifetime”