Unit 5 - Introduction to Psychology.pptx

Unit 5 – Introduction to
Psychology
You are required to write an academic report that includes the areas
outlined in the assignment brief.
Before you begin, you are advised to review the study materials for this
unit. You should then research the subject area more widely.

Task
You are required to write an academic report that demonstrates your
understanding of psychological research.
Your report must include the sections that are outlined in the 'Assessor
Guidance' slide.
For guidance about the structure and format of an academic report you should
refer to the study materials in the ‘Academic Writing Skills’ slide.
Indicative word counts for each section have been provided but remember that
your overall report must not exceed the maximum word count for this
assignment.
Relevant theory must be referenced and you must include a references list and
bibliography using the Harvard format.
The report should be a maximum of 2,000 words.

Please make sure to read all of this powerpoint as all the information is
relevant.
This is an academic report not an essay please follow this writing style.
The work must be aimed at a Distinction grade
Please reach out if you need any help or have questions

Assessment Criteria
• AC 11.1: Explain what is meant by scientific methodology
• AC 11.2: Discuss two scientific research methods commonly used by
psychologists
• AC 21.1: Evaluate the application of two approaches in psychology to
an aspect of human behaviour
• AC 31.1: Discuss some of the ethical issues raised by psychological
research

Assessor Guidance 1
• SECTION ONE
• Explain what is meant by “scientific methodology”.
• You should identify what is meant by scientific methodology – the
methodology that makes psychology scientific – and explain the
benefit of this in terms of the validity of psychological research, for
example, research designs (repeated measures, independent
measures design) and research methods (sampling strategies,
variables – IV, DV and the control of extraneous variables).
• (Indicative word count – 300 words)

Assessor Guidance 2
• SECTION TWO
• Discuss two research methods commonly used by psychologists –
one experimental and one non-experimental – and discuss their
strengths and weaknesses.
• Discuss the key points of one of the experimental methods
(laboratory, field or natural) and evaluate this method.
• Discuss the key points of one of the non-experimental methods
(naturalistic observation, questionnaire, interview, case study) and
evaluate this method.

Assessor Guidance 3
• SECTION THREE
• Luke is 13 years old. He is behaving in a very aggressive manner at home. This is
becoming an increasing concern for his mum and she confides in her friend that
her daughter, Kate, was never as aggressive as her brother. What is going on?
Apply psychological understanding to explain Luke’s behaviour.
• You need to explain why Luke might be behaving in this way using two of the
following psychological approaches:- Biological, Psychodynamic, Humanistic,
Cognitive and Behavioural (this includes classical and operant conditioning and
social learning theory).
• You need to outline the main elements of the two chosen approaches and
provide an evaluation of both approaches by considering their positives and
limitations.

Assessor Guidance 4
• SECTION FOUR
• Read the following details about The Pygmalion Effect by Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968, a significant psychological study.
• Professor Rosenthal, of Harvard University, and Jacobson, a principal of an elementary school in San Francisco, carried out
an interesting field experiment to determine whether teachers’ expectations of students’ performance actually had any
effect on how well the students learned throughout the year. Did what the teachers expect of their students come to
fruition?
• To start their study, Rosenthal and Jacobson gave 18 classes of students, aged 4 to 16, an intelligence test so that the
researchers could see if there was a development through the year in which they carried out the study. Then they chose
20 per cent of the students at random and told the teachers that these children showed ‘unusual potential for intellectual
growth’, and that they could be expected to ‘bloom’ during the year. However, because they were randomly selected,
there was no relationship between the score they achieved on the test and this claim made by the psychologists.
• At the end of the school year the students were retested. Those labelled as intelligent showed a significantly greater
increase in test scores than the other children who were not singled out for the teacher’s attention. The researchers
explained this by using the ‘self- fulfilling prophecy’ that the teachers’ expectations influenced the performance of
thestudents.
• Is this study ethical? Refer to the ethical guidelines for psychological research and state your reasons. Discuss some
other research in your course materials that have led you to consider the importance of ethical guidelines for
psychological research.

1.1 Explain what is meant by scientific
methodology

1.1 Explain what is meant by scientific methodology

1.1 Explain what is meant
by scientific methodology

The four main goals of psychology
The main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and sometimes change the behaviour and cognitions
(mental processes) of human beings.
1.1 Explain what is meant by scientific methodology
1. Describe
Being able to describe a behaviour or cognition is the first goal
of psychology. Without completing this process, it would not
be possible to researchers to be able to understand what
drives and motivates human behaviour, nor would they be
able to develop general laws of human behaviour.
2. Explain
Once the general laws of human behaviour have been
described, research can use this information to explain
why the behaviours are taking place and look for trends
and patterns in behaviour. At this stage, psychologists will
propose theories to explain the cause of the behaviour
being displayed.
3. Predict
If patterns of behaviour can be defined and explained, then
psychologists may be able to use this knowledge to predict
the future behaviour of an individual. These predictions are
often formed from the findings of empirical research
gathered by conducting psychological experiments.
Predictions that are incorrect or unconfirmed can be revised
and may lead to additional research being undertaken.
4. Change
Once a psychologist is certain about the cause of behaviour and
is able to make successful predictions about patterns of
behaviour taking place, they may wish to use this information to
change or control the behaviour if it is an undesired one.
Psychologists are also able to reinforce desirable behaviours to
continue in the same way, once they know what causes the
behaviour to be displayed.

1.2 Discuss two scientific research methods
commonly used by psychologists

1.2 Discuss two scientific research methods commonly used by psychologists

1.2 Discuss two scientific
research
methods commonly used by
psychologists

1.2 Discuss two scientific research methods commonly used by
psychologists

Bandura and social learning theory
1.2 Discuss two
scientific research methods
commonly used
by psychologists

1.2 Discuss two
scientific research
methods commonly used
by psychologists

1.2 Discuss
two scientific research
methods commonly
used by psychologists

2.1 Evaluate the application of two approaches in
psychology to an aspect of human behaviour

2.1 Evaluate the application of two
approaches in psychology to an aspect
of human behaviour

2.1 Evaluate the application of two
approaches in psychology to an
aspect of human behaviour

2.1 Evaluate the application
of two approaches
in psychology to an aspect
of human behaviour

2.1 Evaluate the application of two approaches in psychology to an aspect of human behaviour

DIAGRAM NEXT SLIDE
2.1 Evaluate the application of two approaches in psychology to an aspect of human behaviour

2.1 Evaluate the application of
two approaches in psychology to
an aspect of human behaviour

2.1 Evaluate the application of
two approaches in psychology
to an aspect of human
behaviour

Discuss ethical issues raised by psychological
research

1. General
The investigation should be conducted from the standpoint of all participants and all foreseeable threats to their
wellbeing, dignity, values and health should be eliminated. Care should be given that the investigation should not
cause offence to anyone who may be members of the group from whom the participants for the study may be
drawn. (This is linked to the point about social sensitivity of research earlier in this section.)

2. Consent
Participants should be informed of the objectives of the investigation and any other aspects of the research that might
affect their willingness to participate. If a participant is a child or someone who is considered unable to give consent for
themselves, a consent from a parent, guardian or other responsible person needs to be sought on behalf of the
participant.
3. Deception
Participants should not be intentionally deceived about the nature and purpose of the investigation unless there are strong
scientific grounds for doing so. Where deception is unavoidable, and the appropriate cost/benefit analysis has been
conducted which has been agreed with the BPS board of ethics, then appropriate presumptive consent, debriefing and
opportunities for withdrawal of data need be sought and/or provided for the participant.
4. Debriefing
If the investigation involves the participant being aware that they have taken part in an investigation, after data has been
collected the participant should be debriefed as to the aims and nature of the research so as to mitigate any unforeseen
consequences which might occur as a result of that participant taking part in the study.
5. Withdrawal from the investigation
The participant should be made aware from the very beginning of the investigation that they have the right to withdraw
from the study at any time. This is notwithstanding any payment or other inducement that they may have been given to
take part. This right to withdraw remains in place even after the data has been collected and they should be informed that
they may request their data be destroyed at any point up to publication.

6. Confidentiality
Unless it contravenes the law, all information relating to the participant must remain confidential throughout the
investigation and post publication unless disclosure has been formally agreed with the participant in advance.
7.Protection of participants
Investigators have a responsibility to protect all participants from physical and psychological harm during the
investigation and they should not be exposed to risks greater than they would incur in everyday life. If research
involves experiences or behaviour that the participant might consider private particular care should be taken to
preserve this privacy and all appropriate measures should be taken to protect them from stress. If the participants are
children, particular care should be taken when discussing results with others involved in the children’s care since it is
possible that evaluation based on the investigation might carry weight that was not intended as part of the study.
8. Observational research
Observation of participants must be conducted in such a way as to respect the privacy and psychological well-being of
those being observed. In general, and without prior consent, observations should only be conducted in places where it
would generally be expected that others might be watching, for example in a public place.
9. Giving advice
If during the process of an investigation or study the investigator obtains evidence which suggests there may be
problems of which the participant is not aware, it is the duty of the investigator to inform the participant of this fact if
the investigator feels that by not doing so the wellbeing of the participant might be adversely affe

Your assignment
–
Having viewed the video, you now need to
consider the following. Use this space to make
notes.
• From the information in the clip, do you
think that the participants thought they
were really administering the shocks? Please
give at least two examples of their
behaviour which backs up your opinion.
• Considering the abridged version of the
ethical guidelines that are listed earlier in
this unit, which of these were adhered
to? Explain these clearly.
• Which were not? Give examples of when
and where these were breached?

The above research example has been drawn from social psychology as are the following two that we are going
to consider. This does not mean that social psychology is the only area of psychology where research with
questionable ethics has taken place, but these examples do provide a very clear cost/benefit dichotomy which
leads itself well to discussion of the ethical implications for psychological research.
As was hinted at towards the end of the video footage relating to Milgram, people behave very differently in
groups from how they would perhaps behave individually. This is an extremely interesting area of psychology and
one which has far reaching implications for society. It has also been noted that people conform to the role
expected by them in society, their social role, if you like. One may conform to several roles adopted as part of
normal life, for example that of a mother, daughter, sister, teacher, bank manager or whatever other external role
we are labelled as by others. We behave differently when in these different roles. If during the day, one is a bank
manager then it would be wholly inappropriate to treat one’s mother or children at home as if we were in that
business role, equally treating employees at work as if they were our children would also get us into hot water!
Social roles are therefore very powerful. We understand how to behave in certain roles by watching and imitating
others, so we are likely to treat our children in a similar way as our parents treated us. We all have a view of how
we think a teacher or bank manager ought to behave even if we have never actually been either ourselves.
Therefore, we have a perception of a social role even if we have not experienced it.

Phillip Zimbardo was concerned about brutal attacks and inhumane treatment of prisoners in American Prisons in the 1960s.
He had a theory that group dynamics and perception of the appropriate social role assigned to prison guards was the reason
for this reported brutality as well as the social environment and rigid authority given to the guards. An alternative explanation
might be that the sort of people who apply for jobs as prison guards are naturally aggressive and sadistic. (Note: Milgram’s
findings considered earlier ought to make you wary of this latter explanation as the whole truth given his findings about evil
deeds and evil people however.)
Zimbardo gained permission from Stanford University to set up a mock prison in the basement of the university psychology
department.
He advertised for male participants to take part in a mock prison experiment which was set to last for two weeks. Those
people who applied were subject to a range of psychological tests and only those who scored as emotionally stable were
selected to take part. All were asked if given a preference they would choose to be a prisoner or a guard. Only those who
stated that they would prefer to be a prisoner were finally invited to participate.
Thus, the participants are all emotionally stable, healthy young males who given a preference would choose to be
prisoners. This ought to rule out personality factors which might predispose any of these individuals towards aggression
or sadism.
If, having selected the guards for being emotionally stable and with a general lack of hostility in their personality profiles
his mock prison still featured hostility and aggression then it would be the situation rather than the guards personalities
which was the causal factor. If this were shown to be true, Zimbardo hoped to be able to get the authorities to take the
research findings and use them to make American prisons less dangerous, hostile and aggressive places.

This is the background to the research. It is very important for you to
understand this in order to effectively consider the ethical issues that this
study raised.
Your assignment
–
Consider the following in relation to the Stanford Prison Experiment. Use this
space to make notes.
• What ethical guidelines were broken in this rendition of the procedure for
the Stanford Prison Experiment?
• For each broken guideline you have identified explain whether you
thought it was necessary for the scientific validity of the experiment and
give your reasons as to why or why not you think this is the case.

FINDINGS
Whilst at first things seemed to be okay, it became very
quickly apparent that the guards were beginning to
behave more and more aggressively towards the
prisoners. They used psychological humiliation, solitary
confinement, made them clean toilets with their bare
hands, do press ups with a guard standing on their backs,
deprived them of bedding and attempted to subdue an
‘uprising’ by turning prisoners against one another. One
prisoner had to be sent home after only 48 hours due to
the extreme psychological stress. Zimbardo did not seem
to realise that the situation was getting out of hand until
his wife pointed it out to him. He then realised that his
role as ‘superintendent’ was actually getting in the way of
his objectivity as an observer! The whole investigation had
to be called off after only six days because of the extreme
brutality by the guards and the potential psychological
harm that was being inflicted on the inmates.
RESULTS
What was clearly found was that it was the situation
which made the prisoners and guards conform to the
social roles into which they were placed. From the
prisoners’ part this may have been exacerbated by the
fact that they had been arrested by real police, from
the guards’ perspective the situation was very real, and
they were given absolute authority and power. It is also
clear that there was a large element of obedience to
perceived authority going on (see Milgram earlier). The
guards all tended to behave in similar ways, this may
have been because they did not want to stand out as
different. Many reported afterwards that they were
influenced by the film ‘Cool Hand Luke’ where prison
guards were portrayed as tough and mean. Given that
none of the participants had ever been in a prison, it is
very likely that they were conforming to these
perceived social roles and seeing them as normal.

Zimbardo – Stanford Prison Experiment (1973)
Watch the following video clip from the original experiment and some analysis and
explanations from prisoners and guards who took part in the original study, as well
as from Zimbardo himself.

Ethical implications
Clearly there were many ethical issues raised by this investigation. There was also a lot to learn about
human behaviour as well. If we human beings are so easily swayed by situational factors, then we need
to think very carefully about how we assign roles in society and the amount of authority anyone is given
over others. Zimbardo tried very hard to get the prison authorities to take his work seriously, but there is
little evidence that at the time they did so. This fact must not detract from the important nature of the
work but the question of accountability, potential harm, and whether this can be weighted favourably
against the clear costs to participants needs to be considered carefully. This is made all the more
poignant by some of the material in the clip of Abu Grade, which I do hope you did not find too
disturbing. The fact is that absolute power is a very dangerous concept and without clear guidelines, it
has been demonstrated many times throughout history that ordinary people are indeed capable of the
most atrocious acts. Milgram and Zimbardo were attempting to scientifically show that this was the case
back in the 1960s and 1970s. From recent material in the news, we can see that things do not seem to
have changed. The question is whether it is ethically sound to attempt to prove it?
So, to another question whereby research could pose some different ethical issues for the ordinary
public.

When are we likely to help someone in need and what are the factors that
might stop us from doing so?
These were the questions that Latane and Darley were interested in.
Again, research took place back in 1970, but the research came about as a
result of a shocking murder in 1964 when a young girl was brutally
murdered right outside her apartment building in New York. Please read
the following case study account carefully.

Case Study - Kitty Genovese
She parked her car opposite her building, it was late at night and she had just finished work. A man was
seen following her across the road. He attacked her just outside the block. She screamed. He looked up
and began to run off but then came back, she screamed again, some lights in the other apartments came
on. Someone opened a window and shouted, ‘Leave that girl alone!’. The attacker ran away. The window
was shut, and the lights went out. She approached her doorway and got her key into the door, but the
attacker returned and followed her into the lobby. Minutes later, he came out, got into a car down the
road and drove away. Kitty was found stabbed to death at the steps to her apartment. The whole thing
took somewhere around 30 minutes. The police were eventually alerted by a woman at the bequest of her
neighbour who had climbed out of his window, over the roof and into her apartment where they
discussed whether to call or not! The police were at the scene in just over two minutes. The licence plate
of the car was noted, and the police picked up the murderer a few miles away, at his house.
Assessor notes
–
• How do we know all this? Everybody saw, and nobody did anything.
• The police only took just over two minutes to arrive, if someone had called earlier, she
would have survived.

Watch the following video clip; it will show you where the event took
place and put the case study in the context of bystander behaviour. It
will also show you some more experimental research in the area.

Now, let’s revisit the clip of a re-run of the bystander effect
studies that you looked at earlier in this unit. View this
again from the point of view of those who did not know
they were taking part in an experiment (based on Latane
and Darley, 1970 – The unresponsive bystander).

Does knowing about the concept of the bystander effect, the power of authority, and about our willingness to inflict
humiliation pain and/or suffering on others because we are in a position to do so make this kind of research worth
any amount of suffering for the few who were involved in the investigations?
These are questions that we need to consider very carefully. Often, the most valuable research, that which tells us
most about the human condition, comes at a cost. There is a reason why this research is so old. What is it do you
think? Can you find any more recent, possibly more ethical, research into these areas?
Careful consideration of the above questions could help you formulate an argument which would be the basis for a
discussion question on the above topic. This will be the final assessment for this unit.
Unit summary
In this unit, we have covered:
- What is meant by scientific methodology
- Scientific research methods commonly used by psychologists
- Approaches in psychology
- The ethical issues raised by psychological research

Unit 5 - Introduction to Psychology.pptx

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