geology throw apparent dip true dip hade hinge axial plane dip strike structural geology mountain building orogenesis faulting folding joints faults folds deformation of rocks physical geology micropalaeontology applied biostratigraphy biostratigraphy pollen spores dinoflagellates pollen and spores scolecodonts chitinozoa acritarchs microfossils palynomorphs palynology water pollution mining impacts on enviroment water treatment soil treatment reclamation air pollutution acid mine drainage mineral exploitation mine fire subsidence soil degradation sedimentation erosion ground water contaminations surface contaminations environmental impacts mitigation environment mining
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