Relationship Between Religiosity, Spirituality and Family Functioning

Running head: RELIGIOSITY/SPIRITUALITY AND FAMILY FUNCTIONING 1
Religiosity/Spirituality and Family Functioning
Curtis M. Smith
Penn State York

RELIGIOSITY/SPIRITUALITY AND FAMILY FUNCTIONING 2
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between family functioning and
religiosity and spirituality in order to see if there is a significant correlation between these two
variables. This is important because proficient family functioning is crucial to the developing
child and the prosperity of a marriage. In total, there were 242 participants, but only 144 were
eligible for this specific study. Caucasian females represented the majority of the sample with
their preferred religious affiliation being Protestant. Family functioning and religiosity and
spirituality were all assessed using a variety of scaled items. From these items, the data showed
no correlation between family functioning and religiosity and spirituality; also the data showed
that gender was not a significant variable in determining family functioning as well. Completion
of this study concludes that there is no relationship between religiosity and spirituality and
family functioning.In general, this study will be able to provide family counselors with more
information regarding religion and its effects on the family. Not only can this provide family
counselors with information, but every day families as well.

Religiosity/Spirituality and Family Functioning
The relationship of religiosity and family functioning has been an unconscious problem
within the American household for some time. Family functioning has a key role in the success
and development of a child, not to mention the stability of a marriage(Kerr, 2000). Dr. Murray
Bowen developed a family systems theory which universalized the importance of family
functioning. Bowens’ theory is one that observes human behavior and the interconnectedness of
a family emotionally. Since the connection between the members of one’s family is so
interdependent, a change in a single family members functioning presumably causes a reciprocal
change in the rest of the family unit(Kerr, 2000). Presumably, this means that a potential change
in a particular family member’s religion/spirituality could mean a change in the functioning of a
family unit.
Religiosity and spirituality are two ideas which commonly go hand in hand, however,
they are two very different concepts. Religion is known as a set of beliefs which are attributed to
the purpose of life, creation of the universe, and usually contain ritual practices or a code in
which to live by(Compelling Truth, 2011). Further, spirituality is denoted as the extent to which
one is spiritual. In laymen’s terms; spirituality is how one lives, practices and really connects to
their particular religion (Compelling Truth, 2011). For centuries, the male image has always
been associated with religiosity. Muslim and Jewish faiths are two in particular which focus
more on the male than the female. With the turn of the century and the call for women’s rights,
women now play a larger role within their religious sects, particular the Christian and Hindu
faiths (Loewenthal, MacLeod, & Cinnirella, 2002). The importance of equal gender
representations within religion can help create a stronger congregation and provide equality

inside and outside of the church. Thus, it is expected that Penn State York family and friends will
show equality of gender within their religious practices and denominations.
Family functioning is a key indicator of how a marriage will progress, and often times
how a child will become. Analyzing family functioning is important so that children can develop
successfully and so that marriages can prosper(Epstein, Bishop, & Levin, 1978; Kirkpatrick &
Shaver, 1992). Parental styles, such as authoritative and authoritarian may reflect the high
demand for the end product of a competent child(Gunnoe, Hetherington, & Reiss, 1999). The
way in which parents make demands and elicit the compliance of these demands is what
determines parental effectiveness. Authoritative parents encourage independent thinking and
responsibility while authoritarian parents expect mature age appropriate behavior (Gunnoe et al.,
1999). The stability of one’s marriage could be indicated by their similar values and beliefs;
with the divorce rate in America for first time marriages alone being 41-50 percent, it is
important to inspect and study family functioning in order to decline these rates (Divorce
Statistics, n.d.). Both mother and father play a key role within this aspect of family functioning
as well as in their own marriages.
Religiosity and family functioning are two factors which are parasitic on each other and
therefore need to be studied together. Religiosity is a significant predictor of marriage stability,
whether or not this stability comes from the external pressures of that particular religion or the
practices the specific individuals partake and believe in(Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1992). The
concept that love and religion have something in common has been around for almost all of
history and clearly is still significant today (Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1992). Religiosity not only
plays a role in marriage stability, but whole family functioning as well. Is the family warm, safe,
healthy, and supportive? Religiosity has been correlated with high levels of parental warmth,

parental-child interactions, and positive emotional bonding (Agate, Zabriskie, & Eggett, 2007).
Therefore, this study will examine religiosity and family functioning.
The primary goal of this study is to examine the relationships that families have with one
another. By examining their religious denomination along with family relationship questions,
hopefully there will be a clear indicator of religion playing a role within the family system. Other
things that can be examined would be whether or not an individual is married, how spiritual they
think they are, and some religious activities they partake in. The stronger the
religiosity/spirituality of a family, the stronger the relationship will be between them. When it
comes to gender, it is assumed that women will have a higher affiliation with their
religiosity/spirituality than men. When analyzing family functioning it would be likely to see an
equality among men and women in this regard. Also, in this study there could be a connection to
family functioning based upon married and single parent families.
Method
Procedure
This study utilized a questionnaire and survey that we asked friends and family to
participate in. Surveys were sent via email, text message, and Facebook. The online
questionnaire/survey was on the program Qualtrics. The items from this survey included more
than just religiosity and family functioning. The items ranged from diet, depression, community
features, and many more. An example of an item used in this study is “What is your religious
denomination?” The population consisted of friends and family of Penn State Students over the
age of 18. In total this survey was about 45 minutes long and participants were not compensated
for their participation. In total there were 242 participants who took the survey provided by this

study. However, after elimination, there were a total of 144 eligible participants based off of the
questions they answered.
Participants
The particular participants studied were friends and family of Penn State students over
the age of 18. The final sample included a total of 101 females and 43 males with females
occupying 70.1% of the sample. Males represented 29.9% of the sample.Out of the 144
participants 47 were married, 6 were divorced, and 1 chose not to answer. When breaking the
participants up by gender, 36 females out of 101 were married and 11 out of 42 males were
married. Forty-seven women in the sample stated they were single and 24 males also reported
they were single. The rest of the participants chose other options such as “Living with another”
or “Single” which accounted for the rest of the sample. When it came to race and ethnicity, 129
participants were Caucasian, 5 were African American; and of the 9 who chose other, 8 of them
were Hispanic/Latino. In total, the sample showed that 29.2% of the participants were
moderately religious, and 21.5% declared themselves to be not religious. The participants of the
study were also asked what their particular faith or denomination was. Three main faiths that
were focused on were Catholicism, Protestantism, and no preference. There were 31 participants
who were Catholic, 48 which were Protestant, and 23 chose no preference. The rest of the
sample consisted of Jewish, Atheist, Agnostic, and other religions.
Measures
Family functioning. The participants answered an 8-itemed scale which ranked from 1
(never) to 5 (always). This scale assessed some negative aspects that could be going on within a

household. For example, one of the items given says, “Family members pair up rather than do
things as a family”. This scale was adapted from a previous study which originally was
composed of 16 items (Botha & Booysen, 2014). The average score was 2.36 with a standard
deviation of .90 and a reliability of = .89.
This study included an item asking the participants what their current marital status was.
There was one data point missing for this item due to a participant choosing not to answer. This
item was ranked on a 1-6 scale with the number one being divorced, three being married, and six
being widowed. When examining marital status within this study, the mean score for this item
was 3.90 with a standard deviation of 1.30.
Religiosity and spirituality. There were several ways in which religion and spirituality
were assessed. The participants were first asked how religious and spiritual they were, these
items were ranked 1-5, 1 being extremely religious/spiritual and 5 being not religious/spiritual.
The mean score for this scale was 3.10 with a standard deviation of 1.13 and =.81.
Results
When analyzing the first hypothesis stated, there would be strong correlation shown
between family functioning and religiosity and spirituality. Contrary to the hypothesis, out of the
144 participants, there is no significance shown that family functioning is effected by religiosity
and spirituality (r = .05, p = .54).In conjunction with an original hypothesis regarding gender
affiliation with religion, 101 women who participated in this study, 36 were protestant, 21 were
catholic and three were atheist. Out of 43 males who participated in this study; 12 were
protestant, 10 were catholic, and three were atheist. As an example, this shows that the 36
protestant females out of 101 total in this sample are not statistically different than the 12 out of

43 males.There is no gender difference shown within religiosity for females (M = 3.05, SD =
1.10) compared to females (M = 3.24, SD = 1.21; χ(142) = 10.39, p = .11).One hypothesis stated
earlier in this study predicted that women would have a higher affiliation with their particular
religion than their male counterpart, this study showed that there was no difference between
genders. In alignment with my hypothesis, the data shows that there is no gender difference
regarding family functioning for females (M = 2.37, SD = .87) and males (M = 2.37, SD = .98;
t(142) = .02, p = .99). This data supports the previous hypothesis regarding gender differences in
family functioning.
When analyzing marital status in relation to family functioning, assuming that married
families would have a higher level of family functioning, it is not significant that there would be
a difference between 36 out of the 101 total female participants and 11 of the 42 male
participants who reported being married. For males the mean was (M = 3.24 and standard
deviation was SD = 1.21), females (M = 3.05, SD = 1.10; χ(6) = 7.49, p = .19). Also, contrary to
my hypothesis, there is no difference between being married and having stronger family
functioning (r = .06, p = .45).
Measures 1 2
1. FamilyFunctioning `-- 0.05
2. Religion/spirituality 0.05 --
note:N = 144
Discussion
As stated before, the key aim of this study is to evaluate family functioning and
religiosity and spirituality in a sample that consists of adults in the York, PA area. The goal was
to interpret this information and draw conclusions to relate this information to the United States
population as a whole. In concurrence with previous studies, as stated in the first hypothesis, it is

likely to see a strong correlation between religiosity and spirituality and family functioning.
When separating by gender, the two hypotheses presented were that there would not be a
difference between males and females for family functioning, but females would have a higher
affiliation with their particular faith. Another hypothesis presented in this study is the connection
between marital status and family functioning.
Contrary to the hypothesis, this study produced results that show there is no difference
between family functioning and religiosity and spirituality. For individuals with families and
children, it is seen that a child’s religious involvement does not affect family value as much as
how important religion is to them (Regnerus & Burdette, 2006). This study focused more on the
aspect of the adult’s view on religion and spirituality rather than the adolescents. Since our
sample only included individuals over the age of 18, it was impossible for us to gather the
adolescents view of his/her family functioning.
Contrary to one of the hypotheses involving gender, this study showed no correlation that
women have a higher affiliation with their religion than a man would. Previous research suggests
that in Christian women, which this study mainly consisted of, have higher church attendance
and they are more likely to conduct Bible study. Since this study mainly reported Christian
participants, there should not have been a culture difference that affected the data (Loewenthal et
al., 2002). Therefore, the data presented in this study should accurately show that women do not
affiliate more with their religion than a man would, disregarding the previous hypothesis.
Consistent to the other hypothesis regarding gender, the data from this study shows that
there is no correlation between gender and family functioning. Research shows that there is more
influential factors involving family functioning than gender. For instance, individual family
member’s life satisfaction may be seen as way more influential than gender (Botha & Booysen,

2014). The McMaster model of family function also implies that communication, behavior
control, problem solving, and many other types of interactions within the family are also more
influential than gender (Epstein et al., 1978).
Contrary to the hypothesis stating that married individuals would have a higher level of
family functioning, the data shows that there is no difference between these two variables. There
are consistent studies showing that religion can affect marital happiness. Since divorce rates are
so high and the family is seen as a fundamental unit of society, it is likely to infer that married
families would have a higher likelihood of being a healthy and functional family (Agate et al.,
2007). Due to my sample consisting of a small amount of married individuals, the data
accurately portrayed that single individuals could have higher levels of family functioning as
well as married individuals.
There was a large majority of the sample that answered in the 1-2 range for the questions
about family functioning. This means that they would have a higher family satisfaction based
upon the scale and question that was asked. From this, there is a very good chance that there
were not an equal amount of participants who did not have adequate family functioning. This
bias could have greatly impacted the results of this study. Also, when examining married and
single couples, a large majority of the sample consisted of individuals who were the age of 18-
21. This bias could have greatly affected the results because there are not many individuals who
are married in that range of ages.
There were several other limitations found in this study. For instance, the sample may not
have accurately represented the population. Another thing regarding the sample is that
adolescents and children were not asked to participate. This could have greatly impacted results
because that particular population of people would have provided more information regarding

family functioning and religiosity and spirituality. The sample also consisted of more females
than males which could have also limited the data being produced. Due to the fact that this is a
college class and there are a limited amount of resources, a higher level of research needs to be
on this topic to provide more valuable results. Some ideas for new research on this topic would
be the racial and ethnic differences regarding family functioning and religion and spirituality.
Also, by reversing the hypothesis, family functioning might have an effect on religion and
spirituality instead of the other way around.
Even though most of the hypotheses in this study were disproven, the findings of this
study still provide important information which can be used in the future. With the completion of
this study, there are now many other topics which can be researched regarding family
functioning and religiosity and spirituality. Also, when looking at the gender hypotheses and the
outcomes of this study, an equality can now be seen between men and women. For instance,
women do not have a higher affiliation with their religion than a man would, just like there is no
difference in family functioning between males and females. So, from this data a clearer picture
is created in the equality of the sexes in today’s society.
References
Agate, S. T., Zabriskie, R. B., & Eggett, D. L. (2007). Praying, playing, and successful families:
an examination of family religiosity, family leisure, and family functioning. Marriage &
Family Review, 42(2), 51–75. http://doi.org/10.1300/J002v42n02_04

Botha, F., & Booysen, F. (2014). Family Functioning and Life Satisfaction and Happiness in
South African Households. Social Indicators Research, 119(1), 163–182.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0485-6
Compelling Truth. (2011). Is there a difference between religion and spirituality? Retrieved
February 8, 2016, from http://www.compellingtruth.org/difference-religion-
spirituality.html
Divorce Statistics. (n.d.). Divorce Statistics and Divorce Rate in the USA. Retrieved from
http://www.divorcestatistics.info/divorce-statistics-and-divorce-rate-in-the-usa.html
Epstein, N. B., Bishop, D. S., & Levin, S. (1978). The mcmaster model of family functioning.
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 4(4), 19–31. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-
0606.1978.tb00537.x
Gunnoe, M. L., Hetherington, E. M., & Reiss, D. (1999). Parental religiosity, parenting style, and
adolescent social responsibility. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19(2), 199–225.
http://doi.org/10.1177/0272431699019002004
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Shaver, P. R. (1992). An attachment-theoretical approach to romantic love
and religious belief. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 266–275.
http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292183002
Loewenthal, K. M., MacLeod, A. K., & Cinnirella, M. (2002). Are women more religious than
men? Gender differences in religious activity among different religious groups in the uk.
Personality and Individual Differences, 32(1), 133–139. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-
8869(01)00011-3
Michael E. Kerr. (2000). Theory. Retrieved February 8, 2016, from
https://www.thebowencenter.org/theory/

Regnerus, M. D., & Burdette, A. (2006). Religious change and adolescent family dynamics. The
Sociological Quarterly, 47(1), 175–194.

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