1. QUEEN MARGARET UNIVERSITY
BUSINESS, ENTERPRISE AND MANAGEMENT
DISSERTATION
‘BA/ Hons Events Management
"The past, present and future of mega event legacy.
An investigation of the influence of previous mega events on the legacy program of the 2014
Glasgow Commonwealth Games.”
12000053
Word count: 11,900
APRIL 2015

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Abstract
On 9th
November 2007 Glasgow won the right to host the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The main
agenda of the games was to bring a long lasting legacy within the East End of the city. The area is
known as being among the most deprived regions within the UK. Therefore, in significant need of
substantial economic, social and physical developments. In times of economic austerity a very
popular practice that exists in mega events is host destinations to use mega events to regenerate
urban areas that suffer deindustrialization.
The aim of this research is to examine whether the practice of current mega events to draw lessons
from previous mega events actually exists in the industry. Thus, in order to full-fill the latter aim
the case of the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games legacy program will be investigated. The
research begins with a brief exploration of the practice mega events to act as a catalyst for urban
developments, Glasgow’s background as well as history of the Commonwealth Games.
The second part of this research consists a literature analysis which aims at showing the reader
academic point of view regarding mega events purpose, aim as well as the potential social,
political, economic and political impacts that could arise. Moreover, this part also highlights some
good and bad examples previous mega events’ legacy outcomes.
Then, the thesis proceeds with a justification of why and how the particular research approach,
design and data collecting methods were chosen and implemented. Next, a discussion on the
relevant findings is presented followed by the positive conclusion that the 2014 Glasgow
Commonwealth Games’ organizers and stakeholders did look at previous mega events when
designing the legacy program of the Games.

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Acknowledgments
First, I would like to give the biggest thank you to my family for their constant support not only
during the thesis but throughout the whole studying process in the past nearly four years.
Second, I would like to say thank you to my dissertation supervisor Craig Cathcart whose
expertise, support and advices made a huge contribution to completing this research project.
Last but not least, I would like to say thank you to all the participants who responded to my request
to take part in this research. Unquestionably, this dissertation would have not taken place without
them.

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Glossary
2014 GCWG – 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games
1970 CWG – 1970 Edinburgh Commonwealth Games
1986 CWG – 1986 Edinburgh Commonwealth Games
CWG - Commonwealth Games
ECC – European Capital of Culture
GCC – Glasgow City Council
OC – Organizing Committee

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CONTENTS
1. Intro……………………………………………………………………………………… 8
1.1 Area of Research…………………………………………………………………. 8
1.2 Background……………………………………………………………………… 9
1.2.1 Historical overview of Glasgow and the East End………………………….. 9
1.2.2 Regenerating Glasgow and the East End…………………………………… 10
1.2.3 History of Commonwealth Games…………………………………..……… 14
1.3 Rationale…………………………………………………………………………. 15
1.4 Research Aim and Objectives……………………………………………………… 16
1.5 Structure……………………………………………………………………………. 16
2. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………. 17
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 17
2.2 Mega Events Impacts……………………………………………………………….. 18
2.3 Mega Events Legacy………………………………………………………………….. 13
2.3.1 Physical Legacy ………………………………..…………………………….. 21
2.3.2 Social Legacy………………………………………………………………… 23
2.3.3 Economic Legacy …………………………………..………………………… 25
2.3.4 Political Legacy………..………………………………………..…………….. 26
2.4 Legacy plans for Glasgow…………………………………………………………….. 27
2.4.1 Physical Legacy……………..………………..………………………………… 28
2.4.2 Social Legacy……………………………………..…………………………… 29
2.4.3 Economic Legacy……………………………………….……………………… 29
2.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………… 30
3. Methodology………………………………………………………………..…………. 32
3.1 Philosophy…………………………………………………..………………………… 32
3.2 Approach……………………………………………………………………………… 32
3.3 Data Collection and Analysis Methods………………………………………...…….. 33

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3.4 Ethical Consideration………………………………………..………………………. 35
3.4.1 Limitations………………………………………..…………………………… 36
3.4.2 Sampling………………………………………..…………………………….. 36
3.4.3 Reliability and Validity……………..……………………………………………. 36
4. Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………… 37
4.1 The reason why Glasgow wanted to host the CWG: Legacy of what and for whom… 39
4.1.1 Participants answers………………………………………………………… 38
4.1.2 Meaning of Participants Answers…………………………………………… 40
4.1.3 Link to Literature…………………………………………………………….. 40
4.2 The mixed success of legacy: better understanding of the concept of legacy……….. 41
4.2.1 Participants Answers………………………………………………………… 41
4.2.2 Meaning of Participants Answers…………………………………………… 43
4.2.3 Link to Literature…………………………………………………………….. 44
4.3 Evidence from past mega events and the influence of the legacy program of the
GCWG………………………………………………………………………………… 45
4.3.1 Participants Answers…………………………………………………………. 45
4.3.2 Meaning of Participants Answers……………………………………………. 49
4.3.3 Link to Literature…………………………………………………………….. 50
4.4 Lessons Learned: Participants’ perceptions of the weak and strong aspects of the games’
legacy
program………………………………………………………………………………...
50
4.4.1 Participants Answers………………………………………………………….. 50
4.4.2 Meaning of Participants Answers…………………………………………….. 52
4.4.3 Link to Literature……………………………………………………………… 52
5. Conclusion and Recommendations…………………………………………………… 53
5.1 Research Topic……………………………………………………………………..... 53
5.2 Research Aims and Objectives………………………………………………………... 54
5.3 Findings……………………………………………………………………………… 55
5.4 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………… 56

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5.5 Contribution to research……………………………………………………………… 57
References……………………………………………………………………………………… 58
Appendix 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………. 74
Appendix 2…………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
Appendix 3……………………………………………………………………………………... 76
Appendix 4 …………………………………………………………………………………….. 77
78
79
83
84
Appendix 5 …..……………………………………………………………………………….
Appendix 6 ……………………………………………………………………………………
Appendix 7…..………………………………………………………………………………….
Appendix 8 ……………...…………………………………………………………………………….

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1. Intro
1.1 Area of research
The history of events can be traced back centuries ago since events occupy a unique place in
human society. Turner (1982) states that communities in all cultures identify the necessity to save
particular times and spaces for collective creativity and celebrations and it is this sense of
community that has given rise to festivals and events to become a global industry. However, apart
from their community celebration role, events, and in particular mega-events have drawn
significant attention over the past decades in relation to their role in urban development. Urban
regeneration has become a major component of the urban policy of the cities when staging a
mega-event and regeneration has been increasingly used “to refer to social and economic
rehabilitation, as well as physical recovery” (Smith and Fox, 2007, p. 1127).
Since the 2000s a new shift has taken place towards event legacy focused strategies and mega-
events as the Olympic Games, the World Cup and the Commonwealth Games have included
strong legacy commitments related to social and economic goals beyond the sports arena (Jago
et al., 2010). A key theme in literature has become the mega-events legacy program and its
impacts on the host city. This dissertation researches the legacy planning process of the 2014
Commonwealth Games in Glasgow and attempts to explore how these impacts are being
evaluated in terms of valuable lessons other cities can learn, and how past legacy can shape the
future legacy of major sports events
1.2 Background
1.2.1 Historical overview of Glasgow and the East End
Glasgow was among the first prevalent cities of industrialization and mass production. Prior to
this, as noted by Bellamy (2006) the city’s early life was ruled ‘by the cathedral and the university’

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(p.2). As clarified by Crawford et al. (2007) in the second half of 19th
century the city experienced
a process of very quick industrialization, and consequently, became a leader in industries like ship-
building, heavy engineering, and iron and steel manufacturing. This rapid development of the city
also led to an increase in the population which by the beginning of 20th
century reached more than
1 million people (ibid). According to Gomes (1998) the 1950s marked a crucial moment in the
history of the city as the domination in manufacturing began to drop rapidly. Since the city started
experiencing a process of deindustrialization, employment suffered great turbulences. This pattern
led to reconstructing Glasgow’s economy and over time new businesses were created and stretched
in different areas across the city.
A disproportion was created regarding physical improvements and social equality between the
East and the West End of the city (ibid). Although by mid-20th
century the East End of the city
was a host of many of the manufacturing constructions and activities that supported the growth of
the Empire (Gray and Mooney, 2011), in recent history it has long been categorized as an area of
debility (Lever and Moore, 1986; Pacione, 1995).
Moreover, according to some authors (see Haylett, 2003 and Fyfe et al., 2006) incivility and
disarray are typical for the East End, therefore, the area is seen as a drag of the city’s and country’s
overall development. Other authors (Gomez 1998, Gray 2008) say that the area could also be
characterized as a ‘ghetto’, or as according to Ruggiero’ s description of ghetto (2007, cited in
Gray and Mooney, 2011 p.8), an area “ inhabited by disposable but usable people, rabble and
labour at the same time’. Generally, due to the enormous lack of sufficient investments in East
End over the years it has become among the most deprived areas in Scotland, characterized by
high unemployment rates, severe health issues, low wages and rare business investments (Gray

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and Mooney, 2011). Appendix 1 gives data on ‘Gender life expectancy’, ‘Drug related deaths’ and
‘Criminal Activity’ within Glasgow.
1.2.2 Regenerating Glasgow and the East End
Glasgow observed an extreme urban regeneration activity in the 1980s (Gomes, 1998, p.111), and
a huge number of cultural, architectural, arts and historic events were held with the purpose of
enhancing the city’s reputation, recover its urban areas and enhance living standards. As
recognized by Tucker (2008) with the introduction of the city’s Mayfest, the 1980s were a notable
period in the history of the city as they marked the implementation of a ‘place marketing strategy’
(p.25) in order to create different economy base via ‘culture, leisure, major events and tourism’
(Hassan et al., 2007, p.32). One of the first campaigns in this period was called ‘Glasgow’s Miles
better’, the success of which changed the perception of the UK population about Glasgow (Booth
and Boyle, 1993) and to a great extent influenced the decision to host the 1988 Garden Festival
(Law, 2002). Another event that resulted from the new marketing strategy was the Jazz Festival
introduced in 1987 and since then it takes place every year (Eales, 2014). In 1990 Glasgow became
the European Capital of Culture which brought the city over 3400 events performed by artists from
23 different countries (Hassan et al., 2007). This strategy of re-branding Glasgow continued when
in 1998 Glasgow was titled the British City of Architecture and Design (Law, 2002).
On 9th
2007 November Glasgow was chosen to host the 2014 Commonwealth Games (CWG). The
bid built on the strategy of the last years to use such events as an economic recovery and image re-
branding tool (Bianchini and Parkinson 1993; Gratton and Henry 2001 cited in Matheson, 2010;
Gratton et al., 2005). However, in order for an event of such scale to be successful it is vital for
the organizers to set a clear vision and in that way to justify why they want to host the particular

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event (Kilkenny 2005, cited in Molina 2007, p.10). According to Crawford et al. (2007), indeed
the vulnerability of the East End was used as a main argument in winning the bid.
The vision of the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games is to produce exceptional, athlete-focused
and sport-concentrated Games of superior competition which will be noted around the
Commonwealth, excite huge pride in people from Glasgow and Scotland, as well as result in a
long-term legacy with the East End as a particular focus for this legacy (Glasgow 2014 Limited
2013)

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Pictures 1 and 2 show typical views within the Dalmarnock, East End prior to the games.
Picture 2: Douglas (2009)
Picture 1: Leslie (2015a)

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However, the area is now the home place of the Athletes Village (Picture 3) and The Velodrome
(Picture 4).
Picture 3: Leslie (2015b)
Picture 4: Mcateer (2016)

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Appendix 2 presents a table with regeneration-focused events that have been established
or organized in Glasgow during the years.
1.2.3 History of Commonwealth Games
The history of the Commonwealth Games dates back to 1891 when Reverend Astley Cooper first
proposed the creation of the event (Ibrahim and Yousuf, 2015). However, the first ever event was
hosted by Ontario, Canada in 1930 with 11 countries competing in 6 sports (Dheensaw, 1994).
During the years the name of the Games has undergone a few changes (Commonwealth Federation,
2012). Originally, the event was named British Empire Games then in 1954 it was changed to
British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Later on, between 1970 and 1978 the games were
called British Commonwealth Games, before it eventually gained its present name of the
Commonwealth Games. The Commonwealth Games are also known as ‘The Friendly Games’
(Skillen and McDowell, 2014).
The Games take place every four years with 55 nations and 71 teams participating and are
considered the second most noteworthy sporting event after the Olympic Games (Ramchandani
and Wilson, 2010). Currently, there are 17 sports included in the official CWG sports program.
Appendix 3 presents a full list of these sports.
As sport is the main thing within the CWG, Ramchandani and Wilson (2010) clarify that CWG’s
heads of government identify the Games as a contributor to communal physical activity as well as
the social and economic impacts that result for a host destination. Another perspective introduced
by Polley (2014) is that the nature of the CWG predisposes to inspire and help the health and

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physical well-being within every participant nation as well as acting as encouragement for younger
generations to strive for development. To summarize, a relationship of synergy is established
between the CWG and broader regeneration activities for the host destination.
1.3 Rationale
It can be claimed that the hosting of 2014 CWG in Glasgow perfectly illustrates the latest shift
from a focus on entertainment towards a focus on regeneration and the strategy to use sport for
urban development and new image (Preuss 2004; Gratton et al., 2005; McKartney et al., 2010;).
Literature extensively links urban regeneration with events using such terms as ‘event-driven
regeneration’ (Garcia, 2005), ‘event-themed regeneration’ (Smith and Fox, 2007), and “event-led
regeneration” (Evans, 2011).
Literature also recognizes that there are good as well as bad examples of this strategy, as for
instance the Olympics in Seoul 1988 and Barcelona 1992, and the 2002 Manchester
Commonwealth Games can be considered a success as opposed to 1996 Atlanta Games and the
1998 Sydney Olympics, which failed to meet the expectations for job opportunities, improved
infrastructure and city re-branding. As Smith and Fox (2007, p.1125) state, ‘one way of
understanding cities is by analyzing the legacies of events they have staged’.
This research identified a gap in the literature surrounding the comparison of these legacies and
the lessons learned by host cities in the legacy planning process based on analysis of past legacies.
Therefore it was considered important to study to what extent the legacies of other cities had been
analysed and incorporated in the legacy program of the 2014 Glasgow CWG in relation to
sustainability of impacts, targeted audience and tangible and intangible assets created. In a long-
term perspective the research may raise an important issue to academics and event professionals

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for better understanding of the past legacies and the impacts generated, in order to assist the future
legacy planning process and provide implications for other cities to build on good examples of
using events for regeneration.
1.4 Research Aim and Objectives
The aim of this research is to examine whether the practice of current mega events to learn from
each other exists. Therefore, the case of the 2014 GCWG will be investigated in order to determine
whether the Games legacy program has been influenced by a previous mega event. In order to
achieve the research aim, three main objectives were structured:
 To discover the stakeholders' rationale to stage the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games.
 To examine to what extent the Games legacy program was influenced by previous mega
events.
 To ascertain the stakeholders’ perception of the 2014 GCWG legacy program, the lessons
drawn and their relevance to future mega events.
1.5 Structure
This exploration of Glasgow and Commonwealth history is followed by a literature review which
aims to identify academics perception and understanding of the 3 concepts outlined in Table 1.5.1

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1.Mega Events 2. Mega Events Impacts
3 Mega Events Legacy
- Physical Legacy
- Social Legacy
- Economic Legacy
- Political Legacy
Later on, a justification of the research approach as well as its data gathering methods will be
presented. The thesis also includes a discussion of the key findings and concludes with a summary
of these findings as well proposing potential recommendations.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Mega-Events are big-scale happenings, which have a mass popular appeal and international
importance (Horne & Manzenreiter, 2006). The social power of mega events to bond people
emotionally and build intergroup relations has been widely recognized in literature (Ohmann, et
al., 2006; Sugden, 2006; Schulenkorf, 2010; Coalter, 2007) and events, especially in sports, are
considered as catalyst of social dialogue and integration (Dyreson, 2003). However, in times of
deindustrialization, economy recovery and continuing globalization hosting a major event has
converted into a main agenda within urban areas in order to validate regeneration projects and
attract new investments (Harvey et al., 1989, cited in Essex and Chalkley, 2004a, p.201, Jago et
al. 2010, Smith and Fox 2007). The shift from manufacturing-based economy to service-based
economy has emphasized the role of major events as a facilitator of significant economic
developments (Essex and Chalkley, 2004b; Saad, 2010; Jago et al., 2010). The idea of regeneration
Table 1.5.1

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and improvement has long been associated with events, therefore, as noted by Smith (2012) it is
crucial to understand this relationship in order to gain better insight of today’s processes around
mega events. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the concept of mega events as regeneration
tools and their impacts on the host city. It will provide a detailed exploration of the legacies built
around mega events in relation to the research aims and objectives and it will explore the
implications with regard to durability and validity by presenting comparisons of past legacies and
identifying the frameworks of future legacy planning. Finally, the legacy plan of the 2014 Glasgow
Commonwealth Games will be presented as a basis for the analysis of this paper.
2.2 Mega Events Impacts
There are two features that all mega-events share, namely a global nature and the large impacts
they bring to the built environment and the population of the host destination (Muller 2015). With
the appearance of the tourism industry after the ‘jet age’ has been introduced in the middle of 20th
century, many destinations recognized events as a tourism enhancer, as well as a source of a
number of short and long-term benefits for the host destination (Jago et al., 2010). As stated by
Gratton et al. (2005) mega sport events have the unique ability to result in significant economic
and social returns on governmental funds. This regeneration tool pattern has also been recognized
by Smith and Fox (2006) who state that cities use sports events strategically in order to accomplish
urban, economic and social development. Bilsel and Zelef (2011) also add to this idea that due to
their essential social and infrastructural impacts cities view mega events as a tool for enhancing
city’s image and boosting its economy. Nevertheless, using mega events for redevelopment and
rebranding is a practice that exists for just over 20 years and 1992 Barcelona Olympics could be
considered as a catalyst of this pattern (Jago et al., 2010). On the other hand, long before the 1992
Olympics, Lipsitz (1984) points out some of the most essential regeneration impacts that result for

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a destination from hosting a mega event, namely image development, new foreign investments,
decrease in unemployment, higher community self-esteem and more participation in sport by
younger generations. Spaaij and Westerbeek, (2010) and Smith and Fox (2007) emphasize that
such long-term benefits are only possible if careful and effective planning, execution and co-
ordination between organizing bodies are on place and fit within the long-term plans of local
governmental authorities. Majumdar (2011) also states that only in such cases mega events like
Olympics or Commonwealth Games can be drivers for economy boost, image rebranding,
enhancing communal living standards as well as draw tourists and foreign investors’ attention. It
can be concluded, as Smith and Fox (2007) argue that effective coordination between all
stakeholders, including the event organizers, government bodies, local business and community,
and a long-term development strategy are required in order the event to be successful and at the
same time ensure a positive legacy.
2.3 Mega Events Legacy
The lasting impacts on enhancing the standard of living of local communities are referred to as
‘legacy’ (Kaplanidou 2012). Li and McCabe (2013) emphasize on the importance to differentiate
between ‘legacy’ and ‘impacts’, as impacts only refer to any short-term effects that arise from
within the event, while legacies implicate durability and sustainability or the “legacy is the period
with the longest effect on the host city” (Andranovich, 2001, p.124).
Regarding definition of legacy, literature does not seem to offer a comprehensive or concrete
definition of the term (Preuss 2007; Koenig and Leopkey 2008). Rather, legacy unites a number
of notions concerning a long-term development and also implies the necessity of reflection. A
research within the existing literature shows that Ritchie and Smith (1991) first discuss that mega-

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events could result in a long-term impacts within a destination, however, they do not refer those
impacts to legacy. Later on, Faulkner (1993) identifies that mega events are of huge importance to
host destinations because of their potential long-term economical, socio-cultural and destination
benefits. Hiller (2006) states that the International Olympic Committee (IOC, 2009) ‘likes’ (p.321)
to consider the games’ enduring influence to a city as legacy. However, for host destinations the
concept of legacy is considered from the perspective of a ‘legacy’ further than merely a sporting
legacy but legacy that also contributes to city’s overall well-being (ibid). A host destination serves
mainly as central location for sports events, but on the other hand, with the introduction of legacy
qthere should be essentially more than simple delivery of venues for those events (Hiller 2006).
This explains why in the past 20 years, ‘legacy’ has become an inseparable part of every mega
event’s bid, aiming mainly at regeneration and urban development (Li and McCabe 2012).
Li and McCabe (2012) propose that legacy refers to long-term ‘tangible and intangible’ (p.389)
components of a high profile event that will be in use to future generations and affect economical,
infrastructural and emotional welfare at communal and personal level. Another perspective of the
term is that ‘legacy’ is not immediately visible to the event organizers or visitors but is what
provides a higher quality of a truly successful event and continues to bring benefits long after the
closing ceremony. Kaplanidou (2012) defines legacy as all the economical, societal and
environmental outcomes and divides it into two sub-groups: tangible legacy which refers to
impacts that could be directly witnessed like physical and economic developments, and intangible
legacy which refers to social self-esteem and enhanced communal image. A real example of
tangible legacy is the 2012 Olympic park which aims at developing East London, when intangible
legacy is the remarkable improvement within the local life style (Chappelet 2012).

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Malfas at al. (2004) define that mega –events bring four main impacts on the host city: physical,
social, political and economic, and in order to have a true regeneration legacy for the city it is
essential to create a long-term legacy in all these areas.
2.3.1 Physical Legacy
Since every mega event has been linked with physical transformations and more specifically
infrastructural improvements, the impact of mega events on urban environment and the concept of
‘urbanization’ have been widely discussed (Smith and Fox, 2006; Hall, 1992; Richards and
Palmer, 2010, Pillay and Bass, 2008; Saad, 2010). Chappelet (2012) divides physical
improvements into two categories, namely buildings purposely built for the event itself and those
that are entirely dissimilar to sport like road or transport improvements. Regeneration intentions
are accompanied by huge expenses, though, towards infrastructural developments, most often
within former industrial areas (Jago et al., 2003) and major sports events normally leave landmark
venues compared to the temporary venues of the World EXPOs (Smith, 2012). However, as Pillay
and Bass (2008) point out, there is a ‘growing scepticism’ over the degree of sustainable impact
of these developments. Smith refers (2012, p.68) to the ‘white elephant’ theory proposed by
Robinson and Torvik (2005, cited in Smith 2012) to describe the ‘under-utilised facilities that are
expensive to maintain’ which the events may leave, such as the football stadia of the World Cups
in South Korea and Japan. Smith and Fox (2007) add to this notion that, a sustainable effect could
only be achieved if there are adequate plans for post-event usage of those facilities.
Literature supports the idea that in order to achieve positive physical legacy, the events should be
incorporated in broader regeneration strategies (Spaaij and Westerbeek 2010; Smith and Fox

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2007). Carriere and Demaziere (2002) declare that the event should be embedded in the urban
development rather than the event to be expected to bring urban development. The 1992 Olympic
Games are a good example of this, aimed to finalize a long-term plan for the development of
transport infrastructure, housing and hotel facilities, instead of building new venues. Thus, the
Games left a far-reaching physical legacy which served as a basis for Barcelona regeneration plan
(Smith and Fox 2007). The 1992 Barcelona Olympics are probably the most cited event within
mega events literature and considered by many authors as a catalyst for the urban development
trend (Hiller 2006, Smith and Fox 2007, Gold and Gold 2008). An essential part of the Barcelona
legacy program was to allocate derelict areas for huge regeneration and turn them into attractive
residential, shopping, business and tourism districts with big investments for new transport system
(Essex and Chalkley, 1998, Silvestre 2008). Interestingly, the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics did
not invest any money in building or rebuilding past infrastructures but used solely the facilities
built for the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics, which characterized the games as one of the first
low cost mega events and also allowed local authorities to distribute that money in other desired
areas for development (Chappelet, 2012).
Another example are the Atlanta 1996 Olympic Games which focused on building new sports
facilities with a strict strategy in place for their post-event usage. However, due to the large
number of temporary constructions the physical legacy was minimal and the event was labelled
‘the disposable Games’ (Rutheiser, 1996). In contrast, for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games 90%
of the newly built infrastructures were eternal spatial constructions (Beriatos and Gospodini,
2004), but although the post-games plans in recent times most of the many venues purposely built
for the games are falling apart absolutely abandoned (Nauright, 2013).

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As Smith and Fox (2007) suggest the use and renovation of existing facilities is a good approach
to avoid ‘white elephants’ and it is an approach recommended by the IOC recent declaration
encouraging host cities to reduce the scale of the events and avoid redundant new venues in view
of their tendency of remaining unutilized (ibid).
2.3.2 Social Legacy
Another examined aspect of ‘legacy’ within literature is that only in recent times the main outline
of mega events has moved to social impacts that are beyond financial benefits and internal urban
regenerations (Hiller 2000). In the last decade, people have been brought to the focus of
involvement and not only places and business, as more attention has been given on social outcomes
(Smith, 2012). Balsas (2004) adds to this idea that host destinations have to focus on delivering
social legacy as priority since providing an infrastructural legacy does not mean that the outcomes
would reach broader local communities. Essentially, within literature social benefits relate to new
job creation, improved local standard of living, more tourists being attracted by the area, growth
of local communities’ interest and activity within sports. (Kim et al., 2006; Roche, 2000, Malfas
et al., 2004). Equally important are the increased local identity esteem, community spirit and
values (Essex and Chalkley, 1998). Mihalik (2000) suggests that local peoples’ participation and
support are of huge significance for any destination preparing a mega event bid. They could
contribute to the public funding by approving a growth in local tax policy, and consequently,
provide the necessary funds for the planned venues. Furthermore, as stated by Jago et al. (2010)
one of the most successful examples in history of mega events are those that have involved local
communities the most by translating the potential impacts that would arise for them, accordingly,
gaining their support and predisposing them to hospitable behaviour towards tourists. According

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to Kaplanidou (2012) one of the main factors that determine whether a certain mega event bid is
successful is indeed the lasting effect of the planned social benefits.
Undoubtedly, a mega event creates a number of job opportunities, however literature questions the
quality and duration of these jobs, as the majority of them turn to be low-paid and short-lived
(Schimmel 1995, cited in Gratton et al., 2005, p.990; Hiller 2000; Miguelez and Carrasquer, 1995,
cited in Malfas et al., 2004, p.212). Similarly, volunteering leads to skills enhancement and
employability experience, but it is not certain if the people most in need take advantage of this.
Hence, literature indicates that social legacy has to be more targeted on the most disadvantaged
and be concerned with social inclusion of marginalized groups by involving them in volunteer
schemes and increasing their skills and sports participation (Vigor et al., 2004; Smith and Fox,
2007; Skinner et al., 2008; Minnaert, 2012). A bad example in this respect is the Salt Lake
Olympics, which once the bid had been won there was no interest in addressing social
disadvantages (Minnaert, 2012).
Another concern raised is that a mega sports event can in fact deepen social problems and the gap
between residents (Ruthheiser, 2000). Such is the case with the Atlanta Olympics when thousands
of people were dislodged from public housing projects in order to make way for Olympic
accommodation. Here, a very important aspect is the stakeholders’ interests. Gold and Gold (2008)
point out that the overall organization of the Games was led by local business leaders whose aim
was mainly to boost local economy, thus, ignoring fundamental social issues, and as Andrew
Young, a former mayor of Atalanta (cited in Ruthheiser, 2000, p.238) described the games were a
business project rather than a well-being driver.

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It is very important to note that it cannot be expected a mega event to solve “all of society’s
problems’ as Lenskyj (2000, p.79) points out. Essex and Chakley(1998) stress that a social legacy,
as is the case with physical legacy, could be lasting only if it is part of a long-term urban strategy
which does not rely on the mega-event for its implementation. Therefore, the bidding process of a
major event also has the potential to significantly interfere any short and long-term improvement
plans within a governmental urban development plans (Liao & Pitts, 2006).
2.3.3 Economic Legacy
Obviously, being a host of a mega event inevitably brings some significant economic benefits. The
sums injected in the local, regional and national economies over the seven-year preparation phase
from public and private sectors have a ‘significant economic impact and multiplier effect’
(Silvestre 2008, p.7). A discussed statement within literature is that every mega event is aligned
with long-term economy benefits that result from hosting the event (Roche, 1992) as well as
leading to increases in tourism, job creation, new industries and rebranding city’s image (Mules
and Faulkner 1996; Vigor 2004, Burton 2003, cited in Silvetsre, 2008). Gratton et al. (2005)
clarifies that economic impacts are related to the overall quantity of expenses generated within a
destination and resulted directly from hosting the specific event. As stated earlier major events are
an inseparable part of many strategies of cities seeking to promote themselves as a tourist
attraction. Essentially, in order for a city to generate sufficient funds from tourism, its image as a
destination is fundamental and therefore, the newly built infrastructures are planned to be of
significant value indeed to tourism business, as for example roads, airports, rail stations,
accommodation and telecommunication systems (Jago et al. 2010, Richards and Wilson 2004;
Sports Business Market Research Inc.,2000). It could be added to this concept that recently a

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number of governments have implemented sports related regeneration strategies that include
staging a mega event as a main intention in order to bring economic impacts (Gratton et al., 2005).
Mayerscough (1991) gives a good example by referring to 1990 European Capital of Culture
(ECC) - Glasgow , when the Glasgow City Council utilised the event and the tourism activity
accompanied by it to bring into the city a revenue of approximately £40 million. Similarly, the
2012 London Olympic Games brought increase in the economic activity and tourism in the whole
of UK.
However, Preuss (2007) marks, that economic analyses of mega sports events tend to highlight on
the positive impacts and to ignore the cost efficiency of the resources spent. Similarly, Andersson
et al. (2008) argue that economic impacts within a host destination are hardly ever huge and most
often negative.
2.3.4 Political Legacy
Research shows that Espy (1979) first mentions that a mega event like the Olympics does not only
refer to sports participation but political interests as well. The concept of ‘political legacy’ could
be viewed from the perspective that governmental and corporate bodies form a relationship
between each other in order to ‘boost local construction, retail, and tourist industries’ (ibid, p.14)
as well as get finance for physical developments. According to Chalkey and Essex (1999) a good
co-operation between governmental and business bodies could result in significant communal
improvements in the long run.. However, events could be backed up by governments because of
their potential to pay back in the form of economic benefits (Malfas et al., 2004) and as Hall
suggests (1992), the decision for mega event hosting is a political process involving the interests
of government bodies, as well as private, profit-oriented organizations. This trend of politics
overtaking the idea of mega events is explained by Hiller (2006) who clarifies that politicians do

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not see mega events as merely sports events but also as a chance to promote and achieve their own
municipal outline. Foley et al. (2011) go further by stating that currently mega events are a subject
of massive politicizing, consequently, offering to governmental bodies a unique opportunity to
utilize their regeneration plans within both the country and the host city.
2.4 Legacy plans for Glasgow
The strategic plan of the Games, set out by Glasgow 2014 Limited 2013 presented the key legacy
themes shaped around the vision “to stage an outstanding, athlete-centered and sport-focused
Games of world-class competition which will be celebrated across the Commonwealth, generate
enormous pride in Glasgow and Scotland, and leave a lasting legacy” (Glasgow 2014 Limited
2013). The CWG aimed at delivering a sustainable legacy within every aspect of the well-being of
the city and the nation, namely community, economy and infrastructure (Scottish Government,
2014). Based on the 2014 GCWG’s Bid document and Rogers (2015) the main agendas of the
legacy program are outlined in Table 2.4.1. A more comprehensive analysis of the agendas of the
Games presented by Clark and Kearns (2014) could be found in Appendix 4.
Table 2.4.1
For the city
Regenerate the East End as well as utilize abandoned
lands, improve unemployment rate and help societies live
in more sustainable way.
For Scotland
Contribute to the economic well-being by using the
increased tourist inflow to change the perception about the
area, thus, attract foreign investments.
For the athletes
Deliver Games that will fulfil their ambitions as well as
create positive memories.
For the Commonwealth Games
Federation
Deliver prosperous Games that will additionally strengthen
and improve the Games in general.
For those who helped with the
overall organization of the
games
Further develop their skills and knowledge as well as
achieve self-satisfaction.

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For the Commonwealth Games
Council for Scotland:
By delivering successful games to contribute to enhancing
sports interest and activity among the society.
For the Government
Ensure the Game’s impacts stretch across Scotland and
build up on existing international and home connections
via culture and learning.
2.4.1 Physical Legacy
The physical legacy of the Games aimed at urban transformation of the East End of Glasgow and
was shaped around two main areas - venues and the Athletes’ village.
An interesting point is that 80% of the venues were already in place prior to the Games, and
therefore, only small refurbishments were made in order to increase their functionality (Rogers,
2015).Three venues, however, were purposely built for the games, namely the Velodrome, the
Emirates Arena and the National Hockey Centre. The main aim of the built and refurbished
infrastructures has been to enhance local sports accessibility and encourage local communities and
schools to become more sports active (Matheson 2010).The total budget invested in venues was
£53,640,000 ( 2014 GCWG Bid document).
The Athlete’s village amounted to £17,030,000 or 5% of the total budget for the games (Bid
Document, 2007). The legacy plans suggested that once the games were over part of the village
would be given as social homes while the other part would be privately sold. During the games the
capacity of the village was 8,000 and currently it has been transformed into a private housing with
capacity of 6,500 people (Glasgow 2014 Limited 2013).

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Additionally, £100,000,000 was invested to deliver a number of improvements in other areas such
as transport enhancement, including road construction and railway station refurbishment (2014
GCWG Bid document)
2.4.2 Social Legacy
Drawing upon the above sub-section (2.4.1) the social impacts could easily be identified.
Inevitably, all those infrastructural improvements would enhance the quality of life within the East
End of Glasgow by creating job vacancies, providing improved housing, better transport links and
better access to sport facilities, which were either previously isolated or non-existent (McCartney
at al. 2010; Grey and Mooney 2011; Scottish Government, 2014).The volunteering program of the
games definitely increased the skills, knowledge, experience and capability of its participants.
Much of the volunteering opportunities targeted disadvantaged groups to help jobless people move
through volunteering into employment (Rogers, 2015). Additionally, a total of £43,900,000 was
invested in other social areas as non-competition venues, telecommunications, cultural programs
and information systems (2014 GCWG Bid document).
2.4.3 Economic Legacy
As outlined in the bid Glasgow’s annual local economy output amounted to £13 billion and
maintained over 400,000 job vacancies. Therefore, both the Games overall budget of £575,600,000
(2014 GCWG Bid document) and the construction contracts of approximately £401,000,000
(Rogers, 2015) were a further boost to the local economy.
Re-imaging Glasgow as a visitor destination was a priority to the organizational bodies (2014
GCWG Bid document; Scottish Government, 2014). This would result not only in tourism
increase, but also in changing international business corporation’s perception about Glasgow as a

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destination for further foreign investments which could be considered as key and most noteworthy
economy boosters (Matheson, 2010; Rogers, 2015).
2.5 Conclusion
To sum up, Rose and Spiegel (2011) point out that the regeneration benefits to local communities
and infrastructure explain the constant increase in rivalry between cities’ when bidding for a mega
event. According to Silvestre (2008, p.8), legacies are the ‘thermometer’ for residents to measure
the validity of the event hosting. The physical legacies as improved transportation, housing and
sporting facilities are the tangible legacy aspects, while the non-economic impacts as community
pride and image enhancement are less tangible and it is often relied on ‘patriotic rhetoric’ (ibid,
p.9) and past events success stories. The 2014 GCWG continued the good practice pioneered by
2002 Manchester Commonwealth Games to design a legacy program around a major sports event
to ensure lasting effect of hosting the event when the games are over (Gratton et al. 2005).
However, there is a growing skepticism in literature regarding the degree of economic growth and
urban development which hosting a mega event brings and a tendency is recognized for the pre-
event literature to overstate the expected benefits, which may turn to be immeasurable (Hiller
1998;; Lenskyj 2000; Law 2002;Pillay and Bass 2008). Furthermore, mega events may bring
negative impacts as marginalization of local people, “white elephants”, overspending and
indebtedness and therefore the inheritance of a good example of past mega event legacy does not
guarantee all-time success. The literature research shows that a careful planning within the
frameworks of a long-term strategy incorporated into a broader set of policy agendas is the key to
a long-lasting and positive legacy (Raco 2004; Gratton et al.2005; Law 2002).

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3. Methodology
The aim of this chapter is to give insight of how this research has been approached. It aims at
clarifying the philosophical, methodological and practical methods that have been applied.
3.1 Philosophy
This research seeks to explore what experts within the 2014 GCWG think of the games’ legacy
program and understand what is specific and distinctive about it. Moreover, it also aims at
exploring what is their socially constructed interpretation about mega events and legacy, in
general. Therefore, as conducting face-to-face interviews characterizes the role of the researcher
as participative it could be said that interpretivist philosophy is used.
3.2 Approach
The aim of this research is to explore whether current mega events draw upon each other when
designing their legacy programs. The results will be used to provide recommendations to mega
event managers to improve the quality of regeneration programs. More specifically, this research
explores the case of the 2014 GCWG and on what base its organizers structured its regeneration
program in order to bring physical, social and economic developments for the area. The nature of
this issue predisposes to look for experts’ opinions, knowledge and attitudes regarding the 2014
GCWG and its legacy program.
There are two types of research, namely quantitative and qualitative. Gerrish and Lacey (2010,
cited in Quick and Hall, 2015) describe quantitative research as a type of research which methods
and designs aim at producing statistical findings. Moreover, quantitative research refers to
exploring of people’s perceptions and presenting it in a numerical data (Balnaves and Caputi, 2001;
Castellan, C., 2010)

32. 32
However, the nature of this research predisposes to present people’s by deducting their opinions
and attitudes. Thus, it was considered that qualitative research would be a more suitable
methodology for conducting this research.
Qualitative research deals with issues that are of significant importance and is used to examine the
social world’s considerations, experiences and thoughts as well as their assumptions and meanings
(Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Mason (2002) explains qualitative research as thrilling because it deals
with issues that are of significant importance. The latter author also implies that this type of
research is used to examine the social world’s considerations, experiences and thoughts as well as
the assumptions and meanings that they create.
McCusker and Gunaydin (2015) clarify that a typicality in qualitative research is its agenda aimed
at aspects of social life and its data collection tools which produce words, as information for
investigation. Qualitative research explores an issue within naturalistic settings and tries to
interpret the data regarding senses, perceptions and attitudes that participants bring (Denzin and
Lincoln 2000; Endacott, 2008; Bryman,2016). On the other hand, Bulpitt and Martin (2010) warn
that qualitative research could always be affected by the researcher’s role within the examination.
Regarding qualitative research data collection tools, McCusker and Gunaydin (2015) state that
their objective is to investigate the experiences and perceptions of the public. Actually, one of the
most widely used data collection tools within qualitative research is interviews (Bryman and Bell
2011; Michelle et al, 2014).

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3.3 Data Collection and Analysi Methods
It was considered that the most suitable methods for gathering data are conducting four semi-
structured interviews and one structured. Please see Appendix 5 for a table with the selected
participants.
The aim of this research requires participants to be experts within the 2014 GCWG legacy
program. However, interviewing them by using structured interviews could limit the possibility to
go in depth of topics that arise within the discussion.
Thus, it was considered that semi-structured interviews would be the best approach to data
collection. Conducting interviews with experts from both the events management industry and the
2014 GCWG would give a significant insight on how current mega events’ legacy programs are
being structured and whether the practice of referring to previous mega events exists in practice.
Referring to Mason (2002) prior to the interviews, this research draws upon theories, topics and
opinions that emerged from the literature analysis and carefully considers what is expected to be
found out from using semi-structured interviews.
See Research Questions below:
 To identify and discuss the potential physical, social and economic development that will
result in the area/city from hosting the 2014 Commonwealth Games.

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 To explore in what way hosting the Commonwealth Games concerns the legacy of urban
regeneration and sporting, returns on tourism and general city image, social and cultural
benefits and direct economic improvements.
 To analyse in what way the 2014 Commonwealth Games’ legacy program was structured
and to what extent it was influenced by previous mega events in order to achieve its goals.
Although, it could affected the reliability of the research it has been considered that structured
interviews would be a more suitable data collection method in the case of Participant 5 who sent
their answers by e-mail.
Therefore, using email and telephone over 30 people were reached. A requirement for their
selection was their own or their organizations’ involvement in the legacy program of the 2014
GCWG. The total number of face-to face interviews conducted is 4 averaging between 30 mins
and 1 hour. Two of the interviews have been done by e-mail. Please see Appendix 6 for the
recruitment advert and examples of information sheet and consent form.
The ‘Cabinet Secretary for Health, Wellbeing and Sport’ of the Scottish Government was
contacted and provided valuable documents including a Scottish Government transcript of
discussion related to Commonwealth Games’ Legacy within Scotland, as well as a few
governmental legacy evaluation reports. Additionally, one of the interviewees gave a copy of the
book commissioned by Glasgow City Council called ‘Glasgow’s Commonwealth Games: Behind
the Scenes’, written by Robert Rogerson. Another participant provided the Glasgow’s official bid

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document for the 2014 CWG. All that secondary data has been included within the ‘Literature
Review’ chapter.
3.4 Ethical Consideration
3.4.1 Limitations
The fact that this is a student project with limited resources hints that limitations have arisen during
conducting this research. One major limitation is that although the researcher contacted a huge
number of people only a few answered back and even less agreed to participate. A major reason
for that is the location of the researcher who proposed Queen Margaret University as the only place
where he can host the participants. Essentially, the proposed location happened to be inaccessible
for everyone except for P3 (Participant 3) who went to Queen Margaret University. Every other
interviewee proposed to host the researcher in a different location. Moreover the limited budget
on-hand restricted both the mobility of the researcher and the opportunity to pay for any travel
expenses of the partakers. On the other hand, two of the participants agreed to do the interview by
providing the consent form and their responses by e-mail due to personal time-table constraints
and far too distant location.
Another important limitation is trustworthiness, which could affect the validity of this research.
According to Bryman and Bell (2014) a trustworthiness of a research refers to whether the chosen
sample is actually a representative of the particular society. However, in spite of the relatively
small number of participants the researcher strongly believes that their key roles within the 2014
GCWG legacy program as well as knowledge gave enough depth to the findings and results.

36. 36
3.4.2 Sampling
Participant in this research were chosen using non-probability sampling design. Non-probability
sampling refers to picking research participants on a selective basis (Bryman and Bell, 2007).
Essentially, the latter sampling design was suitable as the respondents required to take part in this
research would need to be or have been directly involved within the 2014 GCWG Legacy Program.
In order to identify potential interviewees that have been or still are part of the GCWG legacy
program a broad online research was conducted mainly within the official websites of Glasgow
City Council, the Commonwealth Federation and the 2014 GCWG. As a result, reviewing these
websites allowed to contact particular groups of people whom afterwards have been used to
identify other potential partakers. Therefore, snowball non-probability sampling has been used.
Moreover, a significant feature of this design is that partakers are being chosen on the basis of their
professional expertise or background within the area of the research (Bryman and Bell, 2011).
On the other hand, Hair et al. (2016) challenge the generalizability of a non-probability sample as
participants are most often chosen on the basis of their accessibility and knowledge. Nevertheless,
Bryman and Bell (2015) highlights that when picking participants on a selective basis it is more
essential to be in depth when gathering data instead of focusing on whether the size of the sample
is actually representative of the population.
3.4.3 Reliability and Validity
Reliability refers to the extent to which a research can be simulated (Bryman and Bell, 2011).
However, the fact that in semi-structured interviews the researcher has the freedom to skip some
questions diminishes the degree to which data could be replicated (Saunders et al., 2016). In the
sense of the current research, the researcher’s questions varied from-person-to-person as every

37. 37
participant has got knowledge in different aspects of the 2014 GCWG legacy program. However,
in order to support the reliability of this research see Appendix 7 for a list of questions that every
interviewee has been asked.
A validity within a research refers to the degree to which the results adequately mirror the issue
being studied (Mason, 2002). Therefore, in order to ensure the validity the researcher used an audio
recording tools when conducting the interviews. In literature, Hair et al. (2016) recognize the
precision and accuracy of recording devices as a significant contributor to the validity of a research.
A transcribed interview with P4 (Participant 4) could be found in Appendix 8.
Chapter Summary
To sum up, this chapter informs about the purpose of certain methods and philosophies used within
the course of this research and why they have been chosen on the account of others. Also, points
out what limitations arose, too.
4. Results and Discussion
The aim of this chapter is to examine, develop and discuss the primary data that was gathered for
the purpose of this research. Through an in-depth exploration of every participant’s answer, four
key themes arose. Those will be presented here as well as a comparison of participants’ answers
identifying the relevant similarities and dissimilarities between their opinions. In order to justify
the applicable findings, their meaning in this research will be clarified. In order to identify
alignments with academic writing also a direct link will be made with the Literature Review
chapter.

38. 38
4.1 The reason why Glasgow wanted to host the CWG: : Legacy of what and for
whom.
4.1.1 Participants answers
The first set of research questions aimed to explore the respondents’ understanding of the purpose
of mega events and how it linked to the rationale behind staging the 2014 GCWG. When asked to
define a mega event participants stated that in order an event to be called ‘mega’, it needed to have
a few distinguishable features, namely to have a form of global media and communal exposure, to
include a huge number of participants - either countries or athletes, and to impact both the host
city and its community (P1, P2 and P3). Mega events examples included World Cups, Olympic
Games, Commonwealth Games and World Championships (P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5). However, it
really depended on the scale of the host destination or as stated by P4 the CWG could be considered
as a mega event in Glasgow but perhaps not in London.
Regarding the purpose of the event the respondents were consistent that most importantly of all
was to deliver an excellent sporting competition, give athletes the opportunity to represent their
country, as well as to positively impact the host community (P1, P4 and P5). On the other hand,
its purpose depended on the scale of the city (P1 and P3) as some destinations used it for political
repositioning like the 1980 Moscow Olympics or the 1988 Seoul Olympics (P2). Another purpose
could be to show-off richness as it is in the cases of the 2022 Qatar FIFA World Cup and the 2014
Sochi Winter Olympics. Very importantly, it was noted that there were these cities that hosted a
mega event with the idea to regenerate and develop their urban infrastructure like the 1960 Rome
Olympics, the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, the 1990 Glasgow European Capital of Culture, the 1992
Barcelona Olympics, the 2000 Sydney Olympics, the 2006 Torino Winter Olympics and the 2012

39. 39
London Olympics (P1, P2, P3 and P5). A common statement among all participants was that a
mega event is a tool to source money to do something for the host destination and its community
which would not otherwise happen and, thus, attract foreign business investments and create
employment opportunities within the area. By contrast at least one of the respondents believed that
some cities lacked a sense of legacy, like the 2004 Athens Olympics (P2).
After defining mega events and their purpose, participants were asked about the rationale behind
Glasgow hosting the 2014 CWG. Both P1 and P4 clarified that similar to previous mega events,
the initial and still on-going aim was to deliver a sustained regeneration of the East End of the city.
Specifically, to the area itself in terms of infrastructure (roads, railways, transport as well as non-
sporting and sporting venues) and to the inhabitants in terms of better living conditions, enhanced
employment opportunities and more accessible sports activities.
P3 critically noted that sometimes ‘people’ named as main outcomes of the 2014 GCWG sporting
and cultural legacy but, in fact, this was a misrepresentation and ‘the economic regeneration was
a priority’. On national and international level the ‘games were a good way to promote Glasgow
on a new stage’ (P2). A very notable statement was made by P1 who emphasized ‘the phenomenal
amount of very early stage planning that went into it and that is quite unusual’. The latter notion
was also supported by P5 who highlighted that ‘A strategy was required as we knew from the
experiences of previous hosts that legacy would not happen automatically, it had to be planned for
and proactively managed’.

40. 40
Therefore, the strategy of the games was shaped around 6 legacy themes proposed by Glasgow
City Council and the Scottish Government which sought to make the city more active, greener,
more prosperous, more accessible, more inclusive, and more international in outlook (P4 and
P5).Thus, by changing the perception of Glasgow as an old and dirty industrial city, potential
results in the future could be bringing business tourism, leisure tourism and better awareness of
the area (P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5).
4.1.2 Meaning of participants answers
Drawing upon the results so far it could be assumed that the 2014 CWG have undergone a very
careful and systematic planning. The expertise of the participants in this research as well as of
other experts involved in the games had been well utilized in order to ensure long-term benefits
not only for the city but for local communities as well. Moreover, their statements showed how
the Games organizers have been influenced by previous mega events. This influence is expressed
in a sense that prior to the event, the different stakeholders co-operated with each other in order to
clearly outline the event’s vision, goals and objectives, therefore, avoid potential failure as is the
case with some previous mega events.
4.1.3 Link to Literature
The participants’ statements align with the way academics see mega events. On the one hand,
participants’ views could be linked with the widely discussed pattern in literature that hosting a
mega event is a long existing practice related to physical improvement which is usually
implemented by destinations looking to recover undeveloped city areas that suffered from
deindustrialization (Harvey et al., 1989, cited in Essex and Chalkley, 2004, p.201; Smith and Fox,
2006; Smith and Fox, 2007; Jago et al., 2010). Similarly, Bilsel and Zelef (2011) recognize that

41. 41
due to the huge social and physical impacts that result in a host destination, a major event is also
seen as a strategy to rebrand and enhance economic activity within an area.
On the other hand, since most mega events are run by a different managerial body (Kose et al
2011) the full dedication of government, business and the community is as well of extreme
importance (Hall 1992). Therefore, it is the job of the managerial bodies that could turn the mega
event into a development driver, indeed, by meeting the needs of communities, governmental
authorities and business organizations (Getz 2007). Nevertheless, literature also says that potential
long-term welfares could only be achieved if cautious and effective planning, execution and co-
operation between organizing authorities are in place and align with the future ideas of local
governmental bodies (Spaaij and Westerbeek, 2010; Smith and Fox, 2007)
4.2 The mixed success of legacy: better understanding of the concept of legacy
4.2.1 Participants Answers
The second theme that emerged from participants’ answers was the concept of legacy and how it
was perceived in the case of the 2014 GCWG.
To begin with, a very broad definition was given by P5 who said legacy is the ‘short, medium and
long term social, economic and physical benefits which accrue to the host as a result of preparing
for and hosting a mega event’. Another perspective was given by P4 that legacy is what was left
over and what continued after a mega event. However, P1 noted that legacy was what most
commonly was used as a justifier of huge expenditure. P3 added to this that usually legacy was
perceived as something positive but it could also be negative ‘just like you can have a negative

42. 42
heritage’ (e.g. the 2022 FIFA World Cup would leave massive air-conditioned stadia for a tiny
population).
In the context of legacy, participants were also asked whether legacy had become an integral part
of every mega event’s nature. According to P1, P2 and P5 the answer was ‘yes’. Firstly, it was
compulsory due to public scrutiny of how finances were spent and especially in time of economic
austerity. Secondly, cities were under pressure to account for the costs of hosting mega events, so
there had to be benefits for the tax payers. On the other hand, P3 answered ‘no’ due to their
scepticism of whether there was any legacy in Sochi 2014 or Beijing 2008 and whether there would
be any legacy at Qatar after the 2022 FIFA World Cup which ‘would leave massive air-conditioned
stadiums for a tiny population’.
In terms of how legacy was expressed in Glasgow, P1 stated that it should be inclusive and directly
related to local communities who were indeed the most impacted by this. Another point of view
was that ‘It covers a range of issues’ (P4, line 71 ), most important of which were the physical
buildings. For example, most of the capacity of the Athletes Village was now occupied and many
people had better quality houses than they used to which potentially could attract other people in
the future to move to the area (P4).
The key to success was pointed out by P2 who said that in order for a long-term legacy to be in
place, it is essential the event was not integrated as a strategy for regeneration but as part of a
national or local authority’s strategy for regeneration. However, even in such cases the organizers
still needed to ask themselves whether staging the particular event had the potential to push their

43. 43
strategy forward. In other words, ‘for a city like Glasgow, legacy is what added value you can
derive from a mega event to contribute to achieving our long term goals as a city’ (P3)
An important aspect of this sub-section is that the reasons why Glasgow wanted to host the 2014
CWG (outlined in Chapter 4.1.) overlap with the potential legacy outcomes in a sense that the
reasons (re-branding, developing the East End and enhancing sports activity) will be the legacy.
In general, these statements show that the concept of legacy is understood, perceived and
implemented in a productive and well organized manner.
However, based on their personal knowledge, experience and expertise in mega-event P2 noted
that the first time when legacy was ‘asked as a question’ (P2) was only in the bidding process for
the 2012 Olympics. Nevertheless, within the bid document for the 2014 GCWG the section about
legacy consisted of approximately 300 words.
4.2.2 Meaning of Participants Answers
Translating the relevance of the latter facts to the aims of the present research shows the
disconnection between mega event organizing bodies and literature. This disconnection is
expressed through comparing the clearly stated facts and examples within literature about
successful legacy planning that took place more than 20 years ago and the ‘huge’ attention paid by
organizing bodies prior to the 2012 London Olympics. Nonetheless, the Glasgow case shows that
including 300 words on legacy in a bid document consisted of approximately 250 pages, is enough
to win a ‘mega event’ bid.
Looking at the rest of the results two key points were identified as relevant here. First,
unquestionably by pointing out some negative and positive, previous and future examples of

44. 44
legacy participants proved their expert familiarity with the concept of legacy. Moreover, it showed
that participants perceived legacy not just as an impact but a potential long-term driving force for
change. Their desire to regenerate the East End as well as justify the huge expenditures also
showed a true understanding of the importance the social aspect of the Games to be addressed and
local people mostly to benefit from the event.
Secondly, and most importantly participants recognize the relevance of legacy. They understand
that in times of economic austerity staging a mega event is one of the few ways to bring additional
funds to the area. Nonetheless, their familiarity with effects of legacy in other host destinations
shows an understanding of the mixed success of legacy. Therefore, it seems relevant lessons have
been learnt and evidence for this is the fact that the Games have been integrated into a broader
regeneration strategy compiled by the council and the government, in order to make the Glasgow
games a positive experience.
4.2.3 Link to Literature
To a great extent participants’ perceptions and vision of legacy align with literature. Similarly to
participants’ answers, Preuss (2007) identifies that literature does not present a precise definition
of legacy. Rather, legacy is seen as potential city booster also recognized in literature as typical
for sports events (Hiller, 1990; Gratton and Kokolakakis, 1997; Carlsen and Taylor, 2003;
McCartney at al., 2007; Garcia, 2008). Definitely, legacy has been widely discussed and mainly
described in literature as a social, economic and infrastructural well-being driver (Ritchie and
Smith, 1991; Faulkner, 1993; Richards, 2000; Liu and Lin, 2011; Grey and Moony 2011; Li and
McCabe, 2012); one that enhances city profile, living standards, business investments and

45. 45
communal pride (Chalkey and Essex, 1998; Roche, 2002; Jago et al., 2003; Kaplanidou, 2012;
Morgas et al., 2014).
Another alignment between literature and findings is that Glasgow’s legacy program has been
integrated into a wider regeneration program submitted by governmental bodies. In literature the
latter concept is seen as a key component in achieving success (Mayerscough, 1991; Gratton et al.,
2005; Liao and Pitts; 2006; Spaaij and Westerbeek, 2010 Majumdar, 2011) and its effect is
witnessed in many destinations like the 1960 Rome Olympics, 1964 Tokyo Olympics, 1976
Innsbruck Olympics, 1992 Barcelona Olympics, 1998 Kuala Lumpur CWG, 2002 Manchester
CWG, 2012 Innsbruck Youth Olympics and the 2012 London Olympics (Chappelet, 1996; Raco
2004; Duran 2005; Chappelet and Junod 2006; Garcia, 2008; Chappelet 2012).
4.3 Evidence from past mega events and the influence on the legacy program of
the GCWG
4.3.1 Participants Answers
The theme about evidence from past mega events and the influence on the legacy program of the
2014 GCWG which arose during the interviews was a very significant theme that contributed the
most to this research. The main events as well as other events that were looked at are outline in the
Table 4.3.1.1

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Table 4.3.1.1
Main events that were looked
at
2002 Manchester Commonwealth Games (P1, P2, P3, P4 and
P5)
2012 London Olympic Games (P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5)
Other Events
1992 Barcelona Olympic Games (P2)
2000 Sydney Olympic Games (P2 and P3)
2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games (P3)
2010 New Delhi Commonwealth Games (P3 and P4)
2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic Games (P5)
In order to explore the extent to which past events influenced the design of the legacy program the
participants were asked whether those events were looked in order to identify desired areas for
development and patterns and procedures to follow. P2 responded that usually the municipal area
for development in most host destinations’ is the East End of the city and P2 pointed out that the
East End of ‘Glasgow is chosen as one of the poorest areas in Scotland most of need of
regeneration’ (P4, L307).
P1 stated that both areas and procedures had been looked upon. The 1992 Barcelona Olympics
strategy was considered and integrated within the Glasgow case. Evidence for this:
…. is the nesting of the Clyde Gateway, Glasgow City Council, Scottish Government and
the contact across all of these with not just the OC but contact with education services, what
schools, universities and colleges can get out of this with sports services’ (P1).
P1 highlighted that what helped Glasgow the most was to draw greatly from analysis in relation to
London 2012 as well as the Government to look at what academic evidences say about procedures
that help encouraging communal sports participation.

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An important model identified was not to build facilities in areas where they would not be in use
after the games, something that many previous hosts had done and were now struggling to integrate
those facilities (P4). P4 also pointed out that an example was taken from the failure of the 2012
London Olympics security, which forced Glasgow to increase its security budget to £90 million,
compared to the originally planned £30 million. Similarly, P2 stated that Manchester 2002 was
explored in terms of the bidding process, while the 2000 Sydney Olympics in terms of urban
development where once the Games were over Sydney took a lot of time to sell the Athletes Village
as houses. This led Glasgow to present a better prepared selling strategy (P2). Inevitably, the bad
experience from past mega events influenced the investment process in Glasgow which focused
on renovating rather than building new facilities (P2). Thus, Glasgow was probably among the few
hosts in mega events history which had 80% of its facilities built prior to the bid process (P4).
P3 and P5 also stated that previous events were looked at with the purpose to identify desired areas
for development. P3 highlighted some of the areas of the 2002 Manchester CWG and the 2006
Melbourne CWG that were looked to be:
 Cultural and sporting infrastructure
 Transport infrastructure
 Volunteering
 Sports participation
 Economic development
 Trade links.

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P3 also explained that in the case of London 2012 organizers advised people without tickets to
stay home in order not to load up the traffic, while Glasgow identified an opportunity for these to
create activities (e.g. free festivals or exhibitions) and encouraged them to come and enjoy (P3).
P5 responded that the 2006 Melbourne CWG were looked at with regards to business engagement
and helping local firms to get Games contracts, while the 2002 Manchester CWG were looked
because of their inclusive volunteering program targeted at marginalized people and aimed to
engage those people on an on-going basis.
Furthermore, participants were also asked whether the 1970 and 1986 ECWG had influenced the
2014 GCWG in some way. However, their answers revealed that the latter games had not been
looked at. The reason was mainly because these games were much smaller in scale (P1 and P3),
or because they were held at times when the event was less corporate (P5). However, P2 stated
that these games were looked at but only in view of the quality of the facilities rather than of any
regeneration effect.
Obviously, all participants recommended the practice to look back to previous events and
described it as essential (P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5). Additionally, P2 added to this notion that ‘people
have to look back at previous bids and events because it helps identifying and outlaying what is
the best way forward’.
4.3.2 Meaning of Participants Answers
Unquestionably, this is the most important theme of this research as it answers the main question
whether in the case of the 2014 GCWG its organizers looked back to previous mega events. The

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answer is positive since this research shows that a total of 5 previous mega events have been looked
at in detail (1992 Barcelona Olympics, 2000 Sydney Olympics, 2002 Manchester CWG, 2006
Melbourne CWG and 2012 London Olympics). A main reason these particular events to be chosen
was that except for Barcelona all of them possess quite similar culture and habits, and in the case
of Manchester even a similar history to Glasgow. Logically, each event had different relevance in
the planning process of the 2014 GCWG. As supported by literature the successful strategies to
use sports events for urban regeneration with a primary focus on the most deprived city areas
(Preuss 2006; McCartney et al.2010; Gratton et al, 2005), to build upon existing resources (Raco
2004; Smith and Fox 2007) and to design an inclusive volunteering program have been taken
aboard. However, it is interesting to note that some of the looked destinations are located on the
other part of the world but the CWG in Edinburgh held only 40 miles away from Glasgow had
been neglected. Nevertheless that the Games in Edinburgh were held years ago when the events
regeneration theme was not yet topical, the infrastructure of the 1970 CWG was and still is quite
distinctive. Firstly, evidence for this is that it was entirely re-used for the 1986 CWG and secondly,
46 years after the Games, the infrastructure is still in great use to local communities and sports
organizations. As discussed in 4.1., since one of the main goals of the 2014 GCWG was to leave
a long-lasting physical legacy to local communities it is essential that participants recognized the
influence and importance of looking back to previous mega events such as the 1970 Edinburg
Games which has left a 46 years old legacy.
4.3.3 Link to Literature
A more interesting issue is that the literature research done for this thesis does not identify the
practice of mega events learning from each other. Instead, different aspects of events have been
contrasted or compared, good examples highlighted and bad examples analyzed. For example, the

50. 50
physical improvements made for the 1964 and 1976 Innsbruck Winter Olympics and then used for
the 2012 Innsbruck Winter Youth Olympic have been contrasted with the complete failure of post-
usage of the venues purposely built for the 2004 Athens Olympics (Chappalet 2012; Nauright
2013). A comparison had been made between the 1996 Atlanta Olympics and the 2002 Salt Lake
City Winter Olympics when both events failed to address any social issues (Minnaert, 2012; Gold
and Gold, 2008). Also a comparison has been made between 1990 Glasgow ECC and the 1992
Barcelona Olympics when the destinations successfully enhanced both the economic and tourism
activity within the cities (Mayerscough, 1991; Jago et al., 2010). However, there was no debate in
literature found on whether mega events build upon past experiences and if their legacy programs
have been influenced by good and bad practices of previous mega events.
4.4 Lessons Learned: Participants perceptions of the weak and strong aspects of
the games’ legacy program
4.4.1 Participants Answers
As the researcher had explored the involvement of the respondents in the legacy program planning,
the last topic that emerged from participants’ answers concerned areas in which the organizers
could have improved. P2 revealed a few interesting facts about the bidding process, the most
notable one being that once the mega event’s bid is submitted an Assessment Team comes and
questions every single part of it, and in the case of Glasgow this questioning continued for a week.
The bid suffered criticism in two areas. First, the sporting facilities did not have enough parking
spaces and this was recognized as a driver for heavier public transport usage (P2). The second area
was in the marketing where the Assessment team emphasized that Glasgow did not fully manage
to justify how much it would get from sponsorship (P2).

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According to P3 the volunteering program of the Games was not well-designed. The participant
stated that usually volunteering supports people in terms of becoming more employable and more
motivated to develop. Thus, P3 believed that in the case of Glasgow’s volunteering program it
should have included more people from excluded communities like disabled or black people and
‘in that way make them feel not just employable but more involved and valuable’. Another weak
area was introduced by P4 who stated that although shooting was a very sensitive topic in most
countries and especially in Scotland after the massacre in 1996 in Dunblane, it would have been
better if a shooting facility had been built. The participant agreed it was a very conscious political
decision not to do it but highlighted the disappointment of people interested in sport shooting. The
latter group of people had to travel to army facilities in Angus for their competitions, an area where
people could not easily go back to. On the other hand, P5 succinctly stated that every aspect of the
games had been planned well.
Importantly, P2 recognized one essential aspect of the 2014 GCWG’s planning process as a ‘great
idea’. Generally, when designing a mega event bid usually OCs hire consultants with rich
experience in the mega events industry. The function of these consultants is to plan and monitor
the execution of the games as well as design post-usage plans once the games are over. However,
in the case of Glasgow, the organizers did not hire a single consultant. Instead, a new practice was
applied and extremely experienced professionals were hired and according to their expertise given
the task to plan separate areas of the Games. However, this practice of not hiring consultants in
the Glasgow case could be referred to the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, which is famous for its
stakeholders who failed to address any social issues at all (Gold and Gold, 2008). It is believed
that the reason for this was the assigning the whole organization of the event to the business sector

52. 52
of the city and as a result the 1996 Atlanta Games have been labelled a business project rather than
a well-being practice (Rutheiser, 2000; Ward, 2013).
4.4.2 Meaning of Participants Answers
There is one way these findings translate into this research. Essentially, participants showed and
proved the importance of looking back on what had been done and reflecting on what could have
been done better or differently. Even though a huge amount of planning went into the Games still
some weak areas were identified. The Games happened less than 2 years ago but in due course
many more will come and therefore, as the main topic of this research relates to looking back to
other events it is very important these experts to draw on the relevant conclusions. There are
lessons to be learned from previous experiences from events elsewhere which could contribute
greatly to overcome some of the shortcomings or obstacles to positive impacts. It is essential to
link future legacy planning to past legacy programs and capitalize on the positive aspects in future
hosting of similar events.
4.4.3 Link to Literature
However, as already stated in 4.3., the research done for this thesis identified that the issue of ‘what
are the lessons learned’ does not exists as a concept in literature of mega events.
Chapter Summary
The aim of this chapter was to debate and investigate the responses given by five participants
regarding the influence of previous mega events on the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games.
Analyzing participants’ knowledge and statements on the 2014 GCWG gave a rich insight into the
back-stage nature of the games. As there was a huge variety of questions addressed to the

53. 53
participants in regard to their sphere of expertise, rationally, some key similarities and differences
have been pointed out.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Research Topic
By mobilizing major resources and investments mega events often draw enormous attention from
around the globe and are conducted under the common assumption that they act as a major driver
of economic growth, hence the high stakes are layed out behind the very competitive bids for their
hosting. Under this assumption, they are often considered as tools for regeneration of
underdeveloped urban areas and are portrayed as the means to this end, based on the success stories
of many previous events.
But with the presence of both good and bad examples for the regenerational capacity of mega
events, a gap exists in literature regarding the extent to which the organizers of mega events draw
upon past experiences. The question of the degree to which events bring long-term, sustainable
improvements for the host societies and economies, as well as fair returns for investors, be it
private or public, is a question of major importance in a multi-billion industry with a world-wide
exposure. Thus, this research examined the relationship between current and past mega events in
terms of the extent to which there is a continuity in the lessons learnt from experience, particularly
in the context of regeneration.
5.2 Research Aims and Objectives
Following a detailed review of the main trends and concepts within literature that surround the
topic of event legacy, this work focused on 2014 GCWG to examine whether its regeneration
program had been influenced by previous mega events. Influence in terms of identifying any good

54. 54
and bad lessons and/or procedures that worked or did not in the past. Three main objectives were
followed in order to fulfil the aim of this research:
 To discover the stakeholders' rationale to stage the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games;
 To examine to what extent the Games legacy program was influenced by previous mega
events;
 To ascertain the stakeholders’ perception of the 2014 GCWG legacy program, the lessons
drawn and their relevance to future mega events.
Researching relevant literature allowed key academic statements to be identified. Statements that
clarify the reasons destinations aspire to host mega events, the potential impacts that could arise
from that, as well as some strategic techniques that help achieve success.
The aim of this research was to explore mechanisms that are not directly apparent but rather
function in the more concealed yet perpetual realm of event professionals. Since the research
aspired to gain an insight into the decision-making processes behind event planning and to
investigate the underlying assumptions that guide such processes, a qualitative research approach
was chosen as the most suitable.
The participants were selected using a non-probability snowball sampling method and are experts
within the 2014 GCWG as well as the mega events industry. In order to gain an in-depth
understanding on how current mega events legacy programs are being structured and whether the
practice of referring to previous mega events exists at all, semi-structured interviews were
considered the most suitable method for data collection. Inevitably, in due course this research
suffered some issues regarding availability and response rate of some participants as well as the

55. 55
researcher’s lack of professional knowledge within the mega events industry. The findings and
their relevance to this research were clarified by outlying four key themes in the Results and
Discussion chapter.
5.3 Findings
The findings of the first theme presented participants’ understanding of mega events being
regeneration tools for the host cities and sources of additional funds. Moreover, the theme also
revealed the huge amount of planning and co-operation between stakeholders in order for the event
to transform the image of the host city and be in great use to local communities, as well as long-
term economic well-being.
The second theme identified participants’ expertise and familiarity with the concept of legacy.
Moreover, they saw the legacy concept not just as an impact but a well-being driver instead. The
findings of that theme also suggested a disconnection between mega event organizing bodies and
academic writing.
The third theme that was discussed, positively answered the question of this thesis on whether
previous mega events had influenced the 2014 GCWG. The findings pointed out five main events
that had been looked at as well as revealed the relevant spheres the 2014 GCWG stakeholders
focused on. Most importantly, this chapter also identified a gap within literature concerning the
issue whether mega events learn from past experiences and build their legacy programs upon key
findings of previous mega events.

56. 56
The last theme, further explored the identified gap in literature. The discussion on the participants’
answers also highlighted the importance of looking back, reflecting on past activities and learning
from them. The findings underlined that despite the intensive planning that went into the 2014
GCWG, there would always be weak areas to be identified and they should be looked upon as
lessons for improvement of future events.
5.4 Recommendations
For mega event organizers:
 Ensure that future mega events draw upon previous ones in order to identify potential
lessons and/or procedures that could work for them.
 Ensure the implementation of a measurement scale that would identify any early patterns
of failure within the legacy program as well as to adequately evaluate the results.
For local authorities:
 Ensure that the refurbished and newly built venues stage future sports events in order to
justify the invested money as well as to continue enhancing local people interest in sports.
 Ensure that the East End is continuously supported in terms of encouraging new
investments and enhancing its popularity among tourists.
 Ensure that there are enough activities and accommodation for tourists in order to
encourage them to stay more and spend more in the area.
 Ensure that private local businesses are aware how to utilize tourist waves coming to the
East End.
For local communities:

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 Ensure that traineeships are continuously held so local people’s employability is being
constantly increased.
5.5 Contribution to research
Due to a number of obstacles as time constraints, participants’ accessibility and availability,
reaching the initial planned number of interviews was not possible and the researcher managed to
interview 5 participants instead of the originally planned 7. The researcher also feels that
participants from other sectors within the 2014 CGWG could also have been approached which
would have increased the reliability and validity of the research. Nevertheless, the researcher
believes that the chosen approach and data collection methods were the most appropriate ones.
This research pointed out and clarified key reasons and justifications why cities want to stage a
mega event with a major focus on the main physical, social, economic and political impacts that
might result from hosting a mega event. The findings of this research were directly related to the
hosting of the 2014 GCWG. The research highlighted that there was inconsistency in literature
with regards to the practice of looking back to other mega events and by comparing and contrasting
the relevant conclusions to be drawn and lessons to be learned for future implications. Therefore,
the researcher suggests a similar research to be undertaken for a future mega event involving a
wider interviewing sample of stakeholders. In order to prove or dispute current findings, similar
questions will have to be asked. By referring to the findings in this research, it will be identified
whether perceptions have changed and past events legacy has been looked back and analyzed in
view of future improvements and sustainability of outcomes.

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The findings in this dissertation are directly related to the legacy aspects of the 2014 GCWG and
its impact on local communities’ well-being and city’s development. This work might be in use to
future mega event organizers interested in delivering a legacy that will benefit actual local need.
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