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Urban green space planning for climate adaptation in Indian cities
Article in Urban Climate · October 2014
DOI: 10.1016/j.uclim.2014.09.006
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Urban green space planning for climate adaptation
in Indian cities
Dhanapal Govindarajulu
Centre for Climate Change and Environment, National Centre for Good Governance, LBSNAA, Mussoorie, Uttarakhand 248179, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 30 April 2014
Revised 25 July 2014
Accepted 7 September 2014
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Urban green spaces
Climate change
Adaptation
India
a b s t r a c t
Indian cities are currently facing high challenges because of growing
urbanization and the impacts of climate change. And there is a lack of
understanding on using urban green spaces for climate adaptation
and mitigation. This article highlights urban green spaces as a cost
effective measure for climate adaptation. Following a review of
global literature, it also recommends best practices in green space
planning for the conservation of urban biodiversity, climate change
adaptation, disaster risk management and enhancement of ecosys-
tem services for Indian cities. The article proposes that there should
be guidelines for urban planners and foresters on green space
planning, by using integrated approaches that meet the social and
ecological needs of the cities.
Ó 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Urban green space planning in the 21st century requires greater insights in social, ecological and
economical aspects that provide a sustainable urban form (Thompson, 2002). Urban Centers are a
key driver of climate change; and while being the prime emitter of Green House Gases (GHGs), they
are also vulnerable to the impacts of climate changes. The major effects of urbanization on the
environment are an increase in temperature (urban heat island effect) (Wilby and Perry, 2006),
increase on the runoff due to impervious surfaces and a surge in the emission of carbon dioxide
(Whitford et al., 2001). Urban and suburban expansion deteriorates native ecosystems, and affects
air and water quality (McKinney, 2002). Changes in the precipitation pattern and sea level rise, on
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.09.006
2212-0955/Ó 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
E-mail address: dhanapalnaidu@gmail.com
Urban Climate xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Urban Climate
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/uclim
Please cite this article in press as: Govindarajulu, D. Urban green space planning for climate adaptation in Indian
cities. Urban Climate (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.09.006

the other hand, are increasing the vulnerability of urban centers lying in low coastal areas, often lead-
ing to extreme events such as floods (De Sherbinin et al., 2007) that are likely to cause economic losses
and damages in billions of dollars (Hallegatte et al., 2013).
1.1. Climate change and Indian cities
India, being a tropical region, is more susceptible to extreme events such as cyclones and floods.
Such hazards are likely to increase in the future, as predicted by the IPCC fifth assessment report
(IPCC, 2013). In many Indian cities temperatures have rised over the years. Kumar and Hingane
(1988), for instance, have noted a marked rise in temperatures in the three Indian cities of Kolkata,
Mumbai and Bangalore; while Ramachandra and Kumar (2010) observed a temperature rise of
2 °C in Bangalore city due to an urban heat island effect. In 2005, Mumbai, one of India’s most
populated cities, was completely shut down due to extreme rainfall and flooding, with flood waters
rising up to a 0.5–1.5 m level in low-lying areas, causing severe economic losses and damage to infra-
structure. Ranger et al. (2010) noted that though the city is prone to frequent floods, because of its
geographical location in a tropical region that receives abundant monsoon rains, its risks to flooding
gets more aggravated due to manmade interventions in its geography—especially due to the inhibition
of natural runoff surface water and loss of a network of drains, rivers, creeks and ponds that drain
directly into the sea. There is thus a clear need for adaptation to future climate changes in Indian cities
(Revi, 2008). Urbanization is important for India’s economic growth and the Indian Government has
recently emphasized the need for creating smart and sustainable cities. Climate resilience should be
an important component for future and existing cities in the country. Mainstreaming climate adapta-
tion in urban development planning (Sharma and Tomar, 2010) is one such option to build climate
resilience, along with climate change adaptation and emergency management.
This essay proposes that Urban Green Spaces is a cost effective ecosystem-based approach for
climate adaptation in Indian cities; and recommends a strategy of Green Spaces Planning in the Indian
context, drawn from global best practices for climate adaptation, environmental and social
sustainability.
2. Urbanization and green spaces in India
India has been experiencing rapid urbanization since 1970, with its urban population rising from
109 million in 1971 to 377 million in 2011, a percentage increase from 19.9 to 31.6 over four decades.
The number of million-plus cities in the country, meanwhile, has steadily increased from 23 in 1991,
and 35 in 2001, to 53 in 2011 (Census of India, 2011). The vehicular traffic in Indian cities has also
risen from 5.4 million in 1981 to 141 million in 2011, which is a phenomenal growth. The transport
sector of Indian cities contribute to over 7% of total GHG emissions in India. High vehicular emissions
in many cities have raised air pollution to unbearable levels (Ghose et al., 2004). By 2030 India is
projected to have six cities with a population over 10 million, and more than a 100 million-plus cities
(IIHS, 2012). Environmental degradation and loss of green spaces are likely to increase too; and
combined with climate change challenges, the environmental sustainability of Indian cities will face
serious threats, going forward.
Green spaces across many cities in India have decreased significantly and are further decreasing
with growing urbanization and population increase. To take the case of Bangalore city, it has lost much
of its open spaces and urban wetlands due to urban sprawl, which has affected its drainage network,
local hydrology and ground water table levels (Sudhira et al., 2004). With rise in urban population the
per capita availability in many urban areas has reduced drastically and can be expected to decrease
further.
It can be noted from Table 1 that many cities in India already fall short of green space available per
capita, which is much below the WHO recommended norms of 9 sq m/capita. Gandhinagar and
Chandigarh being post-independence planned cities of India, their City Master Plans offer better
integration of urban greenery. Chandigarh city, in fact, is one of the greenest cities of India.
2 D. Govindarajulu / Urban Climate xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

3. Green space planning
Urban green spaces enrich aesthetic and recreational avenues for urban communities and
facilitates the general well-being of city dwellers (Attwell, 2000; Maas et al., 2006). Green spaces also
reinforce the process of carbon sequestration, and mitigate the effects of climate change (Nowak and
Crane, 2002; Escobedo et al., 2010). Gill et al. (2007) show that green spaces help in reducing urban
heat island effect, and improve the hydrology by preventing surface runoff, while providing ground
water recharge too. Green spaces can act also as buffers in case of extreme events such as floods,
and act as natural storm water drains, thus reducing climate-related disaster risks for cities and pro-
viding climate adaptation. Urban green landscapes can act as ‘‘soft engineering’’ strategy for climate
adaptation (Kitha and Lyth, 2011), which is ideal for low income countries like India. Green spaces
provide ecosystem services, which are highly linked to help in climate change adaptation and disaster
risk reduction (Munang et al., 2013), and such Ecosystem Based Approach (EBA) in climate adaptation
has been widely reported as a cost effective tool in climate adaptation (IUCN, 2011).
The important aspects of green space in urban form are:
1) Quantity: what percentage of the urban area is filled with green space?
2) Quality: can the green space improve urban biodiversity and provide better ecosystem services?
3) Connectivity: how much of the green space is connected?
4) Accessibility: how much of the population has access to the green space?
Li et al. (2005) suggested a three-layered system, which constitutes an integrated ecological network
for urban sustainable development of Beijing. Uy and Nagakoshi (2007) developed a simple frame-
work for developing green spaces in urban areas and demonstrated its use on Hanoi city, Vietnam,
as a case study. Based on such successful green space planning projects, the following key approaches
are discussed, which can be helpful in guiding urban planners plan environmentally and socially
sustainable urban green spaces for Indian cities for climate adaptation.
3.1. Site selection in green space planning
Urban planners are often confused with selecting the right areas for green space planning. McHarg
(1969) was probably the first person to propose the concept of design with a nature and site suitability
analysis framework. The initial site suitability analysis can help identify areas suitable for develop-
ment, and those that can be maintained as open spaces. The technique involves a comprehensive
Table 1
Major Indian cities with per capita green space.
City Geographical area
(sq km)
Population in million
(Census, 2011)
Forest and tree cover
(sq km)
Per capita green space
(sq m/inhabitant)
Delhi 435 16.31 90.74 5.5
Bangalore 226 8.43 150 17.79
Mumbai 735 18.48 122 2.01
Hyderabad 172 7.74 3.87 0.5
Ahmedabad 469 6.35 21.8 3.9
Chennai 174 8.69 9 1.03
Kolkata 186.23 14.11 0 0
Surat 395 4.58 11.84 2.7
Jaipur 484.64 3.07 61.4 20
Gandhinagar 75 0.20 30.75 147.6
Chandigarh 114 1.05 16.78 54.45
Source: Population of cities from Census of India (2011), geographical area taken from urbanindia.nic.in, and green cover of
cities taken from Forest Survey of India report (2011). The per capita green space for cities of Ahmedabad, Surat and
Gandhinagar were available in a report by Gujara Forest Department (2011). The per capita green space for Jaipur is provided by
Singh et al. (2010).
D. Govindarajulu / Urban Climate xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 3

Geographical Information System (GIS) analysis of several layers. This approach uses overlaying layers
of land use, slope, water features (which include floodplains, wetlands, steep slopes, etc.) as well as
agricultural, visual, and historical resources. Based on a suitability analysis of physiographic and
hydrological features, areas suitable for development of buildings and infrastructure, as well as areas
with a potential for green space development, can be identified. Planning for conservation involves a
clear investigation into which natural values should be protected from development, and how they
should be managed. Setting priorities for conservation will rely on parameters such as integrity, rarity,
diversity, vulnerability or uniqueness of landscapes and ecosystem components. Location decisions
will be determined by their existing spatial distribution and dynamics (McHarg, 1969).
GIS-based land suitability analysis is fast becoming a strong, efficient and effective application for
green space planning (Miller et al., 1998). Kong et al. (2010) developed green space network for Jinan
City, China, based on graph theory and the gravity model. It simplified and systematized the complex
landscape, helping to identify the significance of each green space, and guiding urban planning for bio-
diversity conservation. Such models can also be used in the Indian context, especially in planning
green spaces, with an objective for conserving the rich biodiversity of urban India, while avoiding
the incompatibility of environment and development.
3.2. Landscape ecological approach
Landscape-ecology principles are useful tools for planning ecologically sound urban green spaces
(Dramstad et al., 1996). Landscape ecology focuses on three fundamental structural elements—
Patches, Corridors and Matrix. The function also includes ecological flow of animals, energy, minerals,
water and other elements across the landscape. Taken in its entirety, this is widely known as ‘‘patch-
corridor-matrix’’ (Forman, 1995). The framework includes the identification of spatial elements (large
patch areas, major corridors, special sites, etc.) and landscape functions (water protection, wildlife and
human movement). It is important to connect the patches (parks, gardens and green spaces) using cor-
ridors (riverine buffers, streetscapes, green ways, etc.) to maintain ecological connectivity. Corridors
are important elements in green space planning and design; and ecological corridors can be used to
reduce the negative impact of landscape fragmentation. Landscape-level habitat connectivity plays
an important role in population viability by maintaining gene flow and facilitating migration,
dispersal, and recolonization that on the whole enhances urban biodiversity. Majka et al. (2007) devel-
oped a GIS-based tool ‘‘Corridor design’’ that helps in creating habitat and corridor models. It is impor-
tant to connect patches using corridors to maintain ecological connectivity and models. For example,
using the least cost method (Kong et al., 2010) can help planners to develop green space networks
from potential corridors, identify relatively high-quality habitats, and choose the best opportunities
to maintain and restore connectivity.
3.3. Green spaces planning for climate change mitigation
Using models such as the Urban Forest Effects Model (UFORE) (Nowak et al., 2006) can help in
quantifying key values of urban green spaces such as carbon storage and sequestration, as well the
selection of appropriate trees that help in air pollution mitigation. The GIS-based UFORE model can
help to understand and quantify urban forest structure, function and value. The model helps to quan-
tify the structure of urban forests (e.g., species composition, number of trees, tree sizes, tree locations,
etc.). The model also helps planners in evaluating existing green spaces, and making informed
decisions on tree planting requirements and urban forestry improvement.
3.4. Planning green spaces for meeting social needs
The social aspect of open spaces in urban sustainability deals with access to open spaces and avail-
ability of open space per capita or per 1000 population. Improving the quality of life in the cities is a
major objective in green space planning. As we aim towards planning more livable cities in the 21st
century, it is important to provide our residential areas with accessible and attractive green spaces.
Global standards recommend 33% green cover for urban areas, and that the maximum green spaces

be connected. The LEED ND (Leadership in Energy and Environment Design Neighborhood develop-
ment) recommends that the green area per capita be 20 sq m or maintain a minimum of 1.25 ha
of open space per 1000 residents, and that the access to open space be within 250 m of residential
areas for smaller parks. The type of open space required at each level may vary, such as children’s
parks near schools and residential areas, small parks for daily activities, and large parks that can serve
as weekend destinations. Models such as the one developed by Herzele and Weidmann (2003), which
was used to assess the accessibility of green spaces in the four Belgian cities of Antwerp; Ghent, Aalst
and Kortrijk, can be used for planning urban green spaces with social accessibility.
4. An integrated approach
In India planning urban green spaces requires an integrated approach that balances ecological and
social aspects of green spaces with urban development needs. It is important to preserve the existing
green spaces that are biodiversity-rich from unplanned urban development, while simultaneously
developing green spaces with higher connectivity to ensure ecological sustainability. Models that
combine ecological, aesthetic and social needs are critical in planning green spaces. With the advance-
ment in tools such GIS, planning has become much more easier by incorporating social and ecological
needs (Herzele and Weidmann, 2003). In the 1970s, GIS had emerged as an important planning tool
based on the overlay method framed by McHarg (1969). With the addition of landscape ecological
tools into land use and landscape planning since 1990, the concept of connectivity among patches
has become enhanced; and with additional tools such as neighborhood analysis, the social aspects
of green space planning has also been accounted for. At patch level use, models like UFORE can help
in evaluating the patch quality and planning for efficient utilization of green spaces for climate adap-
tation and mitigation. Teng et al. (2011) developed an integrated approach to green space planning,
which integrates animal conservation, human recreation and water protection objectives. The frame-
work allows priorities to be added, interchanged or weighted according to local needs—making it
applicable for developing as well as developed cities. Such models need to be used in India for green
space planning.
5. Conclusion and recommendation
Currently India’s urban development policies clearly lack climate adaptation strategies (Sharma
and Tomar, 2010; Revi and Mukhopadhyay, 2009). The potential of green spaces in social and environ-
mental urban sustainability, and its potential in cost effective climate adaptation and mitigation is not
fully realized in India as yet. The short-term economic benefits of converting land for development
over retaining it as open space have sometimes led to shortsighted vision in urban planning in the
country. The cost of maintaining open spaces sometimes becomes high, wherein the intervention of
the State or a collective decision making body is required to conserve urban green spaces, as their
non-market benefits clearly outweigh market or material benefits and achieve economic efficiency
(Chaudhry et al., 2011).
The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, has issued guidelines on Urban Devel-
opment Plans Formulation and Implementation (UDPFI) on protecting environmentally sensitive areas
from urban development, while providing adequate open space network. The urban development
agencies of many metropolitan areas have also developed guidelines for protecting open spaces during
urban development. There is no mandatory norm, however, to set minimum green space per capita in
Indian cities or any guideline on developing and improving urban green spaces by utilizing the avail-
able area to its maximum potential for ecological and social needs.
Presently many metropolitan development authorities are considering the inclusion of more green
spaces in future urban/suburban development plans; and there are several schemes such as social and
urban forestry in India that aims at improving urban green spaces. A timely policy input on setting
mandatory urban green space norms and guidelines to plan environmentally and socially sustainable
urban green spaces by incorporating criteria such as accessibility and availability per capita, and
scientific principles such as landscape ecology, can go a long way in developing urban green spaces

in Indian cities that provide valuable ecosystem services, reduce disaster risks, conserve urban biodi-
versity, and help in climate adaptation and mitigation. The National and State Action Plans on Climate
Change are some recent initiatives in India that are aimed at climate change adaption (Dhanapal,
2014; NAPCC, 2008). The National Mission on Sustainable Habitat especially aims to promote climate
adaptation and mitigation in urban centres. Promoting green spaces through these action plans can be
also be a significant step towards climate adaptation in cities.
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