arts

1. 9/25/2022
1
AP 1
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
EVERYTHING IS MADE OF W
ATER
Thales of Miletus (c.624-546 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
624-546 BCE
Thales of Miletus, the first known Greek philosopher, seeks rational answers to
questions about the world we live in
569 BCE
Birth of Pythagoras, the Greek thinker who combined philosophy and mathematics.
551 BCE
Traditional date of birth of Kong Fuzi (Confucius), whose philosophy is centered on
respect and tradition.
508 BCE
The powerful Greek city-state of Athens adopts a democratic constitution
480 BCE
Death of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, founder of the religion and philosophy of
Buddhism
469 BCE
Birth of Socrates, whose methods of questioning in Athens formed the basis for much
of later Western philosophy.
c.460 BCE
Empedocles proposes his theory of the four Classical elements; he is the last Greek
philosopher to record his ideas in verse.
404 BCE
Defeat in the Peloponnesian War
c.385 BCE
Plato founds his hugely influential Academy in Athens.
335 BCE
Aristotle the Lyceum.
c.332 265 BCE
Zeno of Citium formulates his stoic philosophy, which goes on to find favor in the
Roman Empire.
323 BCE
The death of Alexander the Great signals the end of the cultural and political
dominance of Greece in the ancient world.
c.100 178 CE
Ptolemy, a Roman citizen of Egypt, proposes the idea that Earth is at the center of
the universe and does not move.
122 CE
Construction begins on in Britain, marking the northernmost border of
the Roman Empire.
c.150 BCE
Galen of Pergamum produces extraordinary medical research that remains
unsurpassed until the work of Vesalius in 1543.
220 CE
The collapse of the Han Dynasty marks the end of a unified China. The Period of
Disunity begins
AP 1
EVERYTHING IS MADE OF W
ATER
Thales of Miletus (c.624-546 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Active in politics and a successful businessman
• A teacher in the Milesian School of philosophers
• Anaximander (his pupil) expanded his scientific theories to Anaximenes and
later taught the young mathematician Pythagoras
• First-known thinker to seek naturalistic, rational answers to fundamental
questions, rather than to ascribe objects and events to the whims of capricious
gods
• Events in the world - due to natural causes not supernatural intervention
revealing reason and observation.
• Monism everything can be reduced to a single substance
• something from which
everything can be formed; essential to life; capable of motion and change
• All matter, regardless of its apparent properties, must be water in some stage
of transformation.
AP 1
THE DAO THAT CAN BE TOLD IS NOT THE ETERNAL DAO
Laozi (c.6th century BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Become an almost mythical figure; the book Daode jing was not his but a compilation
of sayings by a number of scholars
• A scholar born in the state of Chu with the name Li Er or Lao Tan (Zhou dynasty) -
Laozi (the Old Master)
• An archivist; was consulted by Confucius about rituals and ceremonies
• Hundred Schools of Thought - large body of ideas produced by administrators and
magistrates within the courts (business of devising strategies for ruling)
• Chinese philosophy - practical politics and morality and ethics (rather than the nature
of the cosmos)
• Daode jing (The Way and its Power) attributed to Laozi (Lao Tzu); one of the first
attempts to propose a theory of just rule, based on de (virtue) which could be found
by following dao (the Way) and forms the basis of the philosophy known as Daoism
• To live a virtuous life acting in accordance with the dao
• We can only live according to the dao by wu wei (non-action); does not mean not doing
but acting in accordance with nature spontaneously and intuitively; acting without
desire, ambition, or recourse to social conventions.
AP 2

2. 9/25/2022
2
NUMBER IS THE RULER OF FORMSAND IDEAS
Pythagoras (c.570-495 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Understanding number and mathematical relationships - understanding structure of
the cosmos
• Mathematics key model for philosophical thought
• The goal of life is freedom from the cycle of reincarnation adhering to a strict set of
behavioral rules and contemplation - objective scientific thinking
• Pythagorean Theorem shapes and ratios are governed by principles that can be
discovered
• The whole cosmos should be governed by mathematical rules.
• He and his disciples discovered square and cube numbers
odd numbers
• Discovered the underlying principle behind all right-angled triangles the square of the
hypotenuse = the sum of the squares of the other two sides
• The ratios and proportions are his most important discovery.
• Harmonic series - the elegance of the mathematics he had found in abstract geometry
also existed in the natural world
AP 3
HAPPY ISHE WHOHAS OVERCOMEHIS EGO
Siddhartha Gautama (c.563-483 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Known as the Buddha the enlightenedone who lived in India
• Brahmanism a religion evolved from Vedism (an ancient belief based on the sacred Veda texts)
• Suffering an inherentpart of existence from birth, through sicknessand old age, to death (Dukkha the
truth of suffering)
• Desire cause of suffering; craving for sensual pleasuresand attachment to worldly possessionsand power
(Samudaya the truth of the origin of suffering)
• Detaching oneself from craving and attachment suffering can be ended (Nirodha the truth of ending of
suffering)
• Eightfold Path eliminates desire and overcome the ego (Magga the truth of the path to the ending of
suffering) - (right action, right intention, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration, right speech, right
understanding, right mindfulness) code of ethics (prescription for a good life and the happiness that
Gautama first set out to find)
• Interested in questions of the goal of life, happiness, virtue life
• sensual pleasures - not enough for true happiness
• Nirvana non-attachment, not-being or blowing-out(like that of a candle)
• In Brahmanism and theHindu religion - becoming one with God; he avoids any mention of a deity or of an
ultimate purpose to life unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, and unformed
AP 4
HOLD FAITHFULNESS AND SINCERITY AS FIRST PRINCIPLES
Confucius(551-479 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Analects - the main source of his teachings; a collection of fragments of his writings
and sayings compiled by his disciples; a political treatise, made up of aphorisms and
anecdotes (a sort of rule book for good government; a book of etiquette)
• The virtuous man is the one who understands his place within a hierarchy and
embraces it to the full.
• Virtuous life is acting in accordance with de virtue he turns to traditional Chinese
values: zhong, loyalty; xiao, filial piety; li, ritual propriety; and shu, reciprocity.
• believes in the power of benevolence ruling by example rather than by fear would
inspire the people to follow a similarly virtuous life
• Five constant relationships: sovereign subject, father son, husband wife, elder
brother younger brother and friend - friend
• Golden Rule
• Not what to do but what not to do; Restraint rather action; modesty and humility
• integrating his ideas - both modern Chinese thought and Western philosophy, creating
a hybrid philosophy known as
AP 5
EVERYTHING IS FLUX
Heraclitus(c.535-475 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• The logos is universal.
• Cosmic law all things come into being; all the material elements of the
universe are held in balance
• balancing of opposites, such as day and night and hot and cold - leads
to the unity of the universe
• everything must be in a permanent state of flux, or change - runs
counter to Thales andAnaximenes - all things by their quintessentially
unchanging essence
AP 6

3. 9/25/2022
3
ALL IS ONE
Parmenides (c.515-445 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Influenced by the logical, scientific thinking of Pythagoras
• used deductive reasoning to uncover the true physical nature of the
world
• Something cannot then come from nothing, and so must always have
existed in some form.
• everything that is real - eternal and unchanging, and must have an
indivisible unity
• We can never rely on the experience that is delivered to us by our
senses.
AP 7
MAN IS THE MEASURE OFALL THINGS
Protagoras(c.490-420 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• A proponent of agnosticism the existence of God, of the divine or the
supernatural is unknown or unknowable
• lectured in law and rhetoric to anybody who could afford him
• To win a civil case rather than to prove a point; every argument has two
sides, and both may be equally valid
• What is true for one person may be false for another - Relativism
• Something is ethical, or right, only because a person or society judges it
to be so.
• Many things prevent knowledge the obscurity (difficulty to
see/understand) of the subject and the brevity (shortness) of human life
AP 8
WHEN ONE THROWS TO MEA PEACH, I RETURN TOHIMA PLUM
Mozi (c.470-391 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• advocating universal love or jian ai - care for all people equally,
regardless of their status or their relationship to us
• Mohism impartial caring - - is
fundamentally benevolent and in accordance with the way of heaven.
• There is always reciprocity in our actions.
• Treating others as we would wish to be treated ourselves, we will receive
similar treatment in return.
AP 9
NOTHING EXISTS EXCEPT ATOMSAND EMPTY SPACE
Democritus (c.460-371 BCE) and Leucippus (Early 5th century BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Everything was made up of tiny, indivisible, and unchangeable particles
known as atoms (atomos - Greek for uncuttable).
• The atoms that make up our bodies, for example, do not decay and
disappear when we die, but are dispersed and can be reconstituted.
• Atomism offered the first complete mechanistic view of the universe,
without any recourse to the notion of a god or gods.
AP 10

4. 9/25/2022
4
THE LIFE UNEXAMINED IS NOT WORTH LIVING
Socrates(469-399 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• one of the foundersof Western philosophy; wrote nothing, no school, and no particulartheories of his
own
• asked the questionsthat interestedhim, evolved a new way of thinking, or a new way of examining
what we think
• the Socratic, or dialectical method - a dialogue between opposing views
• The only life worth living is a good life.
• We can only live a good life if we - are not
relative but absolutes;can only be found by a process of questioning and reasoning.
• Morality and knowledge are bound together.
• The life which is unexaminedis not worth living - questioning the meaning of essential concepts that
we use every day
• Understandingwhat we are is the first task of philosophy.
•
• Gaining of knowledge - the ultimate goal of life; the reason why we exist.
• All knowledge is ultimatelyself-knowledge - creates the person you are within this world, and fosters
the care of the immortal soul.
• The first use of inductive reasoningis this method of examining an argument by rational discussion
from a position of ignorancein which a set of premises based on experienceis first established to be
true, and then shown to lead to a universal truth in conclusion.
AP 11
EARTHL
Y KNOWLEDGE IS BUT SHADOW
Plato (c.427-347 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• namedAristocles (broad)
• founded a school known as the Academy came)
• The real world is theworld of ideas the ideal forms of everything.
• The world we live in (world of senses) is just an illusion because we recognize them as
imperfect copies of the concepts in our minds.
• Even though the perfect triangle does not exist anywhere in the natural world; yet we are
able to perceive the perfect tringle in our minds, using our reason.
• Human senses cannot perceive this world of ideas directly it is only perceptible to us
through reason
• - everything that our senses perceive in the material world is like the
images on the cave wall, merely shadows of reality (theory of forms)
• The material world may be subject to change, but is eternal and
immutable.
• Human beings are divided into two parts: the body and the soul; body senses material
world, soul reason realm of ideas
• To use reason to discover the ideal forms or ideas is
AP 12
TRUTH RESIDES IN THE WORLDAROUND US
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• a studious type, learnt a great deal from his master - Plato, but he was also of a very different
temperament
• successor
• realm of Forms - hypothetical ; reality of things - can already be seen here on Earth.
• We find the truth from evidence gained in the world around us and the only way of experiencing the
world through our senses.
• He devised a hierarchical system that is still being used today.
• - the material cause, or what a thing is made of;
the formal cause, or the arrangement or shape of a thing; the efficient cause, or how a thing is brought
into being; and the final cause, or the functionor purpose of a thing .
• or the study of purpose in nature
• Syllogism - a systematic form of logic applied to determine whether it belongs to a certain category
• IfAs are Xs, and B is anA, then B is an X.A=x; B=A; B=X
• The innate power of reason is what distinguishes us from all other living creatures and placed us at the
top of the hierarchy.
• His teachings dominated the Western Philosophy in the MiddleAges becoming the Christian scala
naturae(the ladder of nature) or the Great Chain of Being - depicted the whole of creation dominated
by man, who stood second only to God.
AP 13
DEATH IS NOTHING TO US
Epicurus (341-270 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Goal of life - peace of mind or tranquility.
• It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely, honorably,
and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely, honorably, and justly
• The greatest pleasure is attainable through knowledge and friendship,
and a temperate life, with freedom from fear and pain.
• One of the obstacles to enjoying the peace of a tranquil mind - the fear
of death. If we overcome it, we can be happy.
• Death is the end of sensation - cannot be physically painful. - Death is
the end of consciousness - cannot be emotionally painful.
• It is foolish to let the fear of death because you pain while you are still
alive.
AP 14

5. 9/25/2022
5
HE HAS THE MOST WHO IS MOST CONTENT WITH THE LEAST
Diogenes ofSinope (c.404-323 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Became one of the Cynics and has determination to spurn all forms of
social custom and etiquette, and instead, live in as natural state as
possible; abandoned tub for shelter
• To lead a good life, or worth-living is to free oneself from the external
restrictions imposed by society, and from the internal discontentment
caused by desire, emotion, and fear
• Be contented with a simple life, governed by reason and natural
impulses, rejecting conventions without shame, and renouncing the
desire for property and comfort
• The nearer one will be leading the ideal life.
• Someone has the most is someone who lives in accordance with the
rhythms of the natural world, free from the conventions and values of
civilized society and content with the least.
AP 15
THE GOAL OF LIFE IS LIVING INAGREEMENT WITH NATURE
Zeno of Citium (c.332-265 BCE)
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
• Man is completely powerless to change this reality, and in addition to
enjoying its many benefits; man also has to accept its cruelty and
injustice
• No it is up to the individual to
choose whether to put aside the things over which he has little or no
control, and be indifferent to pain and pleasure, poverty and riches.
• He will achieve a life that is in harmony with nature in all its aspects, good
or bad, and live in accordance with the rulings of the supreme lawgiver
• Stoicism played a large part in Roman culture and was admired by
Romans because of its emphasis on
duty.
AP 16
AP 1
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
MA. ZARAH MAE BERTOS
GOD IS NOT THE PARENT OF EVILS
St.Augustine ofHippo (354-430 BCE)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
c. 260
Plotinus founds Neo-Platonism - a school of mystical philosophy based on
the writings of Plato.
313
Constantine I proclaims religious freedom within the Roman Empire in the
Edict of Milan
395
Crises brought on by both internal and external forces lead to the division
of the Roman Empire into east and west. The western empire falls within a
century.
397-98
St.Augustine ofHippo writes his Confessions.
c.510
Boethius begins to translate .
618
The Tang dynasty is established in China, bringing a GoldenAge of cultural
development.
622
The prophet Muhammad performs the Hejira, his journey from Mecca to
Medina, marking the beginning of the Muslim era.
711
Conquest of Christian Iberia (now Spain and Portugal) by Muslim invaders.
832
The is established in Baghdad, attracting scholars
from around the world to share and translate ideas.
c.1014-20
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) writes his Kitab al-Shifa (The Book ofHealing).
1077-78
St.Anselm writes the Proslogion.
1099
Christian crusaders capture the holy city of Jerusalem.
1347
The Black Death reaches Europe, killing more than a third of the
1445
Johannes Gutenberg of Germany invents the printing press, allowing for a
greater dissemination of knowledge.
1453
Fall of the Byzantine Empire, the eastern remnant of the Roman Empire,
when its capital Constantinople is captured by the Ottoman Turks.
1492
Christopher Columbus crosses theAtlantic and reaches the West Indies.
AP 1

6. 9/25/2022
6
GOD IS NOT THE PARENT OF EVILS
St.Augustine ofHippo (354-430 BCE)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• followed Manichaeism a religion that sees good and evil as dual forces
that rule the universe
• Humans are rational beings.
• To be rational, humans must have free will. - must be able to choose
between good or evil. -Humans can therefore act badly or well.
• If God is entirely good and all-powerful, why is there evil in the world?
• Evil is not a thing, but a lack or deficiency of something.
• Encourages us to see the world as a thing of beauty
• Sickness as absence of health is just playing with words: Illness may be
due to a deficiency of something, but the suffering of the sick person is
real enough.
• Our moral choices allow for the possibility of evil.
AP 1
GOD FORSEES OUR FREE THOUGHTSANDACTIONS
Boethius (c.354-430 BCE)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• a Christian Roman aristocrat; born at a time when the Roman Empire
was disintegrating and the Ostrogoths ruled Italy
• extremely well-educated, speaking fluent Greek and having an extensive
knowledge of Latin and Greek literature and philosophy
• God knows everything; not only the past and the present, but also the
future; lives in an eternal present.
• Things can be known in different ways, depending on the nature of the
knower.
• We cannot know the outcome of uncertain future events.
MP 2
THE SOUL IS DISTINCT FROM THE BODY
A
vicenna (980-1037)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• also known as Ibn Sînâ - the most important philosopher in the Arabic tradition and one of
thinkers
• a child prodigy, rapidly surpassing his teachers not only in logic and philosophy, but also in
medicine
• a philosopher rather than an Islamic theologian
• The soul is distinct from the body.
• one of the most famous in the history of philosophy
• The body and the mind are two distinct substances
• thought-experiment known as the
• The human self what I am is distinct from my body, or anything physical
• The mind is not destroyed when the body dies.
• Descartes - there is a demon who is trying to deceive him about everything on which he
might possibly be deceived. The one thing that he cannot be deceived about is that he
exists
• Gilbert Ryle
self
MP 3
JUST BY THINKINGABOUT GOD WE CAN KNOWHE EXISTS
St.Anselm (1033-1109)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• in 1093, he was made Archbishop of Canterbury, despite his
protestations of ill-health and lack of political skills
• imagines himself arguing with a Fool, who denies that God exists;
argument rest on an acceptance of two things: first,
, and second, that existence
is superior to non-existence.
• We could use the same argument to prove that there exists somewhere
a marvelous island, greater than any island that can be thought.
• Immanuel Kant disagrees that what exists in reality as well as in the
mind is greater than what exists in the mind alone.
MP 4

7. 9/25/2022
7
PHILOSOPHYAND RELIGION ARE NOT INCOMPATIBLE
A
verroes (1126-1198)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• also known as Ibn Rushd, born in 1126 in Cordoba, then part of Islamic
Spain; family of distinguished lawyers and trained in law, science, and
philosophy
• reconciles religion and philosophy through a hierarchical theory of
society; that only the educated elite are capable of thinking
philosophically, and everyone else should be obliged to accept the
literally
• poetic approximation of the truth; this is the most that the
uneducated can grasp
• agrees withAristotle that universe has always existed; the resurrection
of the dead, a basic tenet of Islam
• Truth is relative to the context of enquiry.
MP 5
GODHAS NOATTRIBUTES
Moses Maimonides (1135-1204)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• also known as Rambam - born in 1135 in Cordoba,Spain, into a Jewish family; rich in cross-
cultural influences; educated in bothHebrew andArabic
• Worked as a rabbinic judge just like his father - an activity for which he thought it wrong to
accept any payment.
• One of his central concerns was to guard against anthropomorphizingGod - the tendency
to think about God in the same way as a human being
• the worst mistake of all - to take the Torah (the first part of theHebrew Bible) as literal
truth, and to think that God is a bodily thing
• N - existed in Christian theology; focuses on describing God only in terms
of what God is not
• Attributes are either accidental (But God has no accidents ) and essential (Essential
attributes define). But God is undefinable. God has no attributes (because He is
unchanging). God cannot have any essential attributes either, because they would be
defining.
• things about God, but they must be understood as , rather
than
• - stating what God does, rather than the sort of thing God is.
• We have only the negations to guide us: we cannot say what God is.
MP 6
JalalAd-din Muhammad Rumi (1207-1273)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• also known as Mawlana (Our Guide) or simply Rumi, born in Balkh, in a province of
Persia
• After his death, his followers founded the Mawlawi Order of Sufism - famous for its
Whirling Dervishes - perform a distinctive dance in the Sema ceremony a form of
dhikr unique to the sect.
• developed a version of Sufism that sought to explain the relationship of man with the
divine
• Central to his visionary philosophy - the idea that the universe and everything in it is
an endless flow of life, in which God is an eternal presence.
• Man is not in a cycle but in a progression from one form to another stretching into
eternity.
• As something ceases to exist in one form, it is reborn in another; have no fear of
death, and nor should we grieve a loss.
• his ideas was inspirational within Sufism and influenced mainstream Islam
MP 7
THE UNIVERSEHAS NOTALW
A
YS EXISTED
ThomasAquinas (c.1225-1274)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• 2 divisions of people today - the universehad a beginning, and those that hold that it has always
existed
• the most famousof all medieval Christian philosophers
• John Philoponus, a Greek Christian writer of the 6th century - found an argument to show that
Aristotle must be wrong
• The world did have a beginning, but God could have created it in such a way that it existed eternally
• in which an
infinite number of things all exist at the same time is impossible
• If somethingis created by God, then, it owes its whole existence to God, but that does not mean
that there must have been a time when it did not exist at all - quite possible to believe in an eternal
universethat had been created by God.
• he thinks thatAristotle was wrong, but was not wrong in principle, or in his reasoning
• insists that a human being has just one form: his or her intellect
• Had conflict within himself between being a goodAristotelian and philosopher and a faithful Christian
• demonstrates how philosophy can provide the tools for intelligent enquiry; allowing us to investigate
not what happens to be the case, but what is possible and what is impossible, and what are
intelligible questionsto ask
MP 8

8. 9/25/2022
8
GOD IS NOT-OTHER
Nikolaus Von Kues (1401-1464)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• We gain knowledge by using our reason to define things
• To know God is to try to define the basic nature of God
• According to Plato - - the ultimate
source of all other forms and knowledge; some early Christian
theologians
• God is what comes before everything, even before the
possibility of something existing.
• - substance
MP 9
TO KNOW NOTHING IS THEHAPPIEST LIFE
DesideriusErasmus (1466-1536)
MEDIEV
AL
PHILOSOPHY
• Humanist ideas play a key role in the Reformation - an essential part of
being human, and is what ultimately brings us the most happiness and
contentment
• Religion says that true belief can only ever be based on faith, never on
reason.
• advocates a return to simple heartfelt beliefs, with individuals forming a
personal relationship with God - not one prescribed by Catholic doctrine
• embrace what he sees as the true spirit of the Scriptures simplicity,
naivety, and humility the fundamental human traits that hold the key
to a happy life
MP 10
THANK
YOU!