1. 1
Ronglin Yao
A Brief Summary of Learning Strategies on L2 Learning
Since language learning strategy has reached mainstream recognition in the L2 field
(Dornyei and Skehan, 2003, p.607f), I would like to summarise the influence of
learning strategies factor on L2 learning.
According to Ellis (1997), “Learning strategies are the particular approaches or
techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2” (pp.76-77).
Ellis (1994) asserts that individual learner differences together with various
situational factors determine the learners’ choice of learning strategies, which then
influence two aspects of learning i.e. the rate of acquisition and the ultimate level of
achievement (p.529f).
Ellis (1994) states that different kinds of learning strategies may contribute to
different aspects of L2 proficiency (p.556f). Later on, Ellis (1997) quotes from other
studies that successful learners use more strategies than unsuccessful learners; they
may also call on different strategies at different stages of their development (pp.77-
78ff).
Furthermore, the results from good language learner at the initial phase of strategy
research indicated that it was not merely a high degree of language aptitude and

2. 2
motivation that caused some learners to excel, but also the students own active and
creative participation in the learning process through the application of
individualised learning techniques (Dornyei and Skehan, 2003, pp.607-608ff). They
continued to state that there was an increasing body of research evidence that
learning strategies contributed to the effectiveness of L2 attainment, and the
practical significance of this claim was further augmented by the emerging view that
learning strategies could be specifically trained / taught to language learners
(pp.609-610ff).
Wenden and Rubin (1987) also reiterate that our endeavours to help learners
improve their language skills must be complemented by an equally systematic
approach to helping them develop and refine their learning skills. Learner training
should be integrated with language training (p.7f).
This is further supported by Jack Richards, John Platt and Heidi Platt (1992) who
have claimed that the effectiveness of L2 learning is thought to be improved by
teaching learners more effective learning strategies (p.260f). O’Malley and Chamot
(1990) share the same view that “strategy training should probably be integrated
with regular instruction in order to demonstrate to students the specific applications
of the strategies and to promote the transfer of strategies to new tasks” (p.184).
Others like Cohen (1998) asserts that when strategy training is included in the
instructional package, students can learn how to learn a foreign language while they
are learning the language content (p.66f).

3. 3
By now we have seen the influence of learning strategies factor on L2 learning as
well as why strategy training should be integrated into L2 teaching. Next I shall talk
about what we can possibly do in L2 classroom teaching in terms of learning
strategy training.
Since there are many different ways in defining learning strategies, the classroom
strategies and activities for learning strategies differ greatly. Under such
circumstances, I tend to hold the position that we should use only those strategies
and activities that the research findings have proved effective in L2 development.
In L2 teaching, we could integrate good language learner (GLL) strategies into
language teaching program. Naiman, Frohlich, Stern and Todesco (1978) found six
broad strategies shared by GLLs as 1) find a learning style that suits you; 2) involve
yourself in the language learning process; 3) develop an awareness of language both
as system and as communication; 4) pay constant attention to expanding your
language knowledge; 5) develop the L2 as a separate system; and 6) take into
account the demands that L2 learning imposes (pp.103-105ff). This has practically
given us a range of options for strategy training.
We could also follow Brown (1994)’s suggestions in the classroom teaching i.e. 1)
get students fill out a check list to ascertain what measures to be taken; 2) engage in
frequent spontaneous hints about successful learning and communications strategies;
and 3) build strategic techniques that are directed as much as possible toward good
language learning behaviours (pp.128-130ff).

4. 4
Skehan (1989) suggests three broad domains covered by learning strategies i.e. 1)
those which determine the learner’s personal involvement in the learning process; 2)
those which enable the learner to sort and organise the L2 data; and 3) those which
cause the learner to monitor his or her progress (pp.94-96ff). Thus, we could
integrate such strategies and activities in L2 classroom teaching: encourage learners
to seek learning opportunities, setting aside regular practice times for 1); teach
learners to search for patterns, mentally recalling and rehearsing L2 patterns for 2)
and ask learners to check performance against that of native speakers for 3) (pp.94-
96ff).
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) have divided strategies into metacognitive, cognitive
and social / affective strategies. Metacognitive strategies involve executive processes
in planning for learning, monitoring one’s comprehension and production, and
evaluating how well one has achieved a learning objective; cognitive strategies refer
to the mental processing of the materials that are to be learned by the learner; and
social / affective strategies relate to the learner interacting with another person in
order to assist learning (p.197f). Thus, we could integrate these strategies training in
our classroom teaching. For example, for metacognitive strategies training, we could
teach learners in planning learning, monitoring own speech, self-evaluation; for
cognitive strategies training, we could teach them how to do note-taking, resourcing
and elaboration; and for social / affective strategies training, we could ask learners to
work with fellow students or encourage them to ask for teacher’s help.

5. 5
O’Malley, Chamot and Kupper (1989) found that second language learners
developed effective listening skills through the use of monitoring, elaboration and
inferencing (cited in Brown, 1994, p.115f). In this circumstance, we could teach
learners how to do monitoring, elaboration and inferencing so as to develop their
listening skills.
Oxford (1990) distinguishes direct strategies and indirect strategies which is one of
the most useful manuals of learner strategy training currently available. For direct
strategies, we could perform the training of memory, cognitive and compensation
strategies for L2 learners; for indirect strategies, we could conduct the training of
metacognitive, affective and social strategies for our learners (cited in Brown, 1994,
pp.125-127ff).
All in all, there is a rich collection of learning strategy training manuals available for
use. All we need to do is to conduct learners’ needs analysis and choose prudently
the strategies and activities that cater to the exact needs of our learners. In doing so,
we as ESL / EFL teachers can effectively promote their language development.
References
Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (p.115, pp.125-
130). UK: Pearson Hall Regents.
Cohen, A.D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language (p.66).
UK: Addison Wesley Longman Limited.
Dornyei and Skehan (2003). Individual differences in second language. In
Doughty, C.J. and Long, M.M. (eds), The handbook of second language
acquisition (pp.607-610). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

6. 6
Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition (pp.76-78). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition (p.529 & p.556). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H.H., and Todesco, A. (1978). The good language
learnier. In Cook, V. (1991, 1996), Second language learning and language
teaching (pp.103-105). (2nd
Edition). UK: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
O’malley, J.M. and Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language
acquisition (p.184 & p.197). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J.C., Platt, J. and Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language
teaching & applied linguistics (p.260). UK: Longman Group UK Limited.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second-language learning (pp.94-96).
UK: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
Wenden, A. and Rubin, J. (eds). (1987). Learner strategies in language learning
(p.7). New York: Prentice-Hall International.