This document discusses several factors that can affect language learning strategy usage, including age, gender, proficiency level, learning styles, and motivation. Regarding age, younger learners tend to use task-specific strategies while older learners use more generalized strategies. Studies on gender differences in strategy use have found that females tend to use social and metacognitive strategies more while males favor metacognitive and compensation strategies, though some studies found no gender differences. Higher proficiency learners employ a wider range of strategies. Learning styles like extroversion/introversion can influence strategy preference. Motivation is also an important factor, with more motivated learners using strategies more frequently.

1. GGGE6533
Language Learning Strategies & Instructions
FACTORS AFFECTING LLS USAGE
ZULAIKHA BINTI ZULKFLEE |P73949|TESL

2. Language Learning Strategies
• Behaviours, techniques or actions used by a
language learner to help them develop
proficiency in the target language. (Oxford,
1990; Ellis, 1994; MacIntyre, 1994, among
others) cited in Gowans (1999).

3. AGE
• Oxford (1990): Older and younger learners use
different strategies. Their cognitive level, which is
interdependent to biological development and
social experiences, plays an immense role in their
preference of strategy choice.
Cited in Aslan (2009)
• Young children tend to use strategies in task
specific manner, whereas older ones use
generalized and more sophisticated strategies
(O’Malley & Chamot, 1990) cited in Karami
(2012).

4. • Comparative study between matured (23
years or more) and younger university
students (22 years or less) done by Devlin
(1996) cited in Chen (2014):
– Mature age students employed metacognitive
strategy more efficiently than younger ones.
• Lee & Oxford (2008) in Chen (2014):
– Young learners tend to use social strategies.

5. GENDER
• Aslan (2009): Males and females employ
different strategies in relation to their gender
characteristics.
– Female students used Social and Metacognitive
strategies most, Memory strategy least
– Males favored the use of Metacognitive and
Compensation strategies most, Affective strategy
least
Hong-Nam & Leavell (2006) cited in Khamkien
(2010)

6. • However, different conclusions were made by
several researchers:
i. Oxford & Nyikos (1989) and Dreyer & Oxford
(1996) reported that females used a greater
number of strategies than males.
Cited in Taguchi (2002)
ii. Ehrman & Oxford’s (1990) study did not
discover any evidence of differing LLS use
between the genders.
Cited in Aslan (2009)
iii. Tran, 1998; Wharton, 2000 designated that
males used learning strategies more than
females when learning a language.
Cited in Khamkien (2010)

7. PROFICIENCY LEVEL
• Oxford and Crookall (1989) reported that high-
proficiency learners tended to use a wider range
of strategies than low-proficiency learners.
Cited in Taguchi (2002)
• Wharton’s (2000) study on students learning
Japanese & French as foreign language pointed
out that more proficient learners used diverse
strategies to succeed.
Cited in Khamkien (2010)

8. • A high level of proficiency has been associated
with an increased use of both direct and indirect
strategies (Chang, 1990; Green and Oxford, 1995;
Park 1997; Chen, 2002).
• More specifically, cognitive and metacognitive
strategies show high relations with high language
proficiency levels. (Ku, 1995; Peacock and Ho,
2003) cited in Rahimi et. al (2008).
• O’Malley et. al (1985) studied beginning and
intermediate high school L2 learners: translation
strategy used more by beginners,
contextualization used more by intermediate
levels – cited in Rahimi et. al (2008)

9. LEARNING STYLES
• Individual’s learning style preferences influence
the type of LLSs they use (Ehrman and Oxford,
1990; Rossi-Le, 1995) cited in Rahmi et.al (2008).
• Extroverts prefer social strategies while introverts
use metacognitive strategies (Ehrman & Oxford,
1990) in Rahimi et.al (2008).
• Learners who prefer group study used social and
interactive strategies (working with peers or
requesting clarification (Rossi-Le, 1995) in Rahimi
et.al (2008).

10. • Example of learning styles according to Oxford
& Ehrman, 1995) cited in Gowans, 1999:
– Sensory/ perceptual styles, tolerance of ambiguity,
risk-taking, persistence, etc.
• E.g.: Sensory:
– Auditory
– Visual
– Kinesthetic

11. MOTIVATION
• Oxford & Nyikos (1989) stated that motivation is
an important factor influencing LLS Usage.
Cited in Mohammad Rahimi et. al (2008)
• Gardner & MacIntyre (1993) reported that their
undergraduate foreign language participants,
who were substantially motivated tended to
adopt MORE learning strategies and use them
MORE frequently when compared to those
relatively less motivated.
Cited in Sadighi & Zarafshan (2006)

12. Motivation by Gardner & Lambert (1972) cited
in Kamarul Shukri Mat Teh & Mohamed Amin
Embi (2010)
Integrative
• Universal
• Purpose: to integrate
oneself into the
language community
or the country of the
language
• Positive attitude
towards elements of
the target language
Instrumental
• Concrete
• Purpose: Other than
integration (e.g.: to
pass the exam, for
career advancement,
to be able to read in
the target language)
• Focus on the functional
aspect of the language

13. CONCLUSION
• LLS is influenced by several factors
• Each researcher focused on different aspect of
language learning strategies
• Resulted in various findings
• According to a lot of other factors

14. REFERENCES
Aslan, O. 2009. The Role of Gender and Language Learning Strategies in Learning English.
M.A Thesis The Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East University.
Chen, M. L. 2014. Age Differences in the Use of Language Learning Strategies. Cadanian
Center of Science and Education. 7 (2): 144-151.
Gowans, C. J. 1999. Second Language Learning Strategies and Factors Affecting Their Use: A
Qualitative Study of Missionaries in Nepal. M.A. Thesis, Victoria University of
Technology.
Kamarul Shukri Mat Teh & Mohamed Amin Embi. 2010. Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa.
Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya
Karami, S. 2012. Vocabulary Learning Strategies: the Effect of Level of Proficiency on the
Strategy Use. Trends in Advanced Science and Engineering. 6 (1): 79-87.
Khamkhien, A. 2010. Factors Affecting Language Learning Strategy Reported Usage by Thai
and Vietnamese EFL Learners. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. 7 (1):
66-85
Mohammad Rahimi, Abdolmehdi Riazi & Shahrzad Saif. 2008. An Investigation on Factors
Affecting the Use of Language Learning Strategies by Persian EFL Learners. Canadian
Journal of Applied Linguistics. 11 (2): 31-60
Sadighi, F. & Zarafshan, M. 2006. Effects of Attitude and Motivation on the Use of Language
Learning Strategies by Iranian EFL University Students. Journal of Social Sciences &
Humanities of Shiraz University. 23 (1): 72-80
Taguchi, T. 2002. Learner Factors Affecting the Use of Learning Strategies in Cross-Cultural
Contexts. Prospect Journal. 17 (2): 18-34