Digitale Mediers Historie

Digitale medier før og nå
Anders Fagerjord,
Førsteamanuensis i medievitenskap,
Universitetet i Oslo
Kunsthøgskolen i Oslo, 4. januar 2010

• Første generasjon:Vakumrør

• 1944: Colossus (UK)
Datamaskinens
•
•
1946: ENIAC (USA)
historie
1949: CSIRAC (Australia, spilte musikk i 1951)

• 1951: UNIVAC

• 1952: IBM 701

• Andre generasjon: Transistorer

• IBM 1401 (100 000 solgt 1960–61)

• PDP-1 (Dataspillet Spacewar 1962)

• Tredje generasjon: Minicomputer med mikrochip, fra 1963 (Apollo)

• HP 2116 (1966)

• Nova (1969, 50 000 solgt)

• Fjerde generasjon: Mikrocomputer med mikroprosessor

• 1973: Xerox Alto

• 1975: Altair 8800

• 1977: Apple II, Commodore PET, TRS-80

• 1981: IBM PC

• 1984: Apple Macintosh

• 1985: Microsoft Windows

1945
Vannevar Bush: “memex”

Text

Vannevar Bush, “As We May Think” (Atlanic Monthly, 1945)

foto: Joi Ito

1962: Spacewar

1965
Deﬁninsjonen av hypertekst

Sub--
Chronology Uncertain Chronoiogies r,e<:
Lattice Var;ont. Car resE,t n,~er ,we

Let me introduce the word "hypertext" to mean a body
Catqgo,les t- . . . . . . ,
r- . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--~ Reading
f
; ' ~ Notes I ;,.

of written or pictorial material interconnected in such a Sourc9s
1

Sub!act 1 : I / Library
index Demography I J Information
"%

I Table b__J

complex way that it could not conveniently be Treaty
Theoretical
I IIl~Or~ 1 Igg ~ - ~ L.._.
Arguments Professional
Table
presented or represented on paper.

/ /
..... / , .

It may contain summaries, or maps of its contents and
"~Outlin I ""- .
~',,~,nt, ~ Sublexls Source
/
Text Quotahons Bgblio( rephy
/
/
Poin:ts -" 1
Footnotes F--:t-7"l 1o
i
their interrelations; it may contain annotations,
Verbatim Check
Sources I---/-- I

t
additions and footnotes from scholars who have
examined it. (96)
Sub-Outlines

FIGURE 4 I E L F ' s capacity for total filing: hypothe-
tical u s e by historian. Thin lines indicate l i n k s ; h e a v y
rules indicate s o m e of s a m e entries.

Theodore Holm Nelson: “A File Structure for The Complex, The Changing and the
Indeterminate“. Proceedings of the 20th national conference
Cleveland, Ohio, United States. New York: ACM, 1965. 84-100

1968
Doug Engelbart demonstrerer NLS

Douglas C. Engelbart og William K. English: NLS Demonstration. Film. San
Francisco, 8. desember 1968

1969
Hypertext Editing System (HES), Brown University

foto: Greg Loyd

foto: DigiBarn foto: Alan Kay

1973: Xerox Alto

1974

Theodore H. Nelson: Computer Lib/Dream Machines, 1974

processing tasks. First,all idea processing is based on NoteCards is implemented within the Xerox embedded in their substance. As a rule, these were See
a set of supporting facts for each argument. VanLehn's

1984
the reificationof ideas. Idea processing in NoteCards Lisp programming environment. or Unspecified links and were placed at the end of the
card's text preceded by the word "See". There are also main goal was to compare the competing hypotheses
progresses through the manipulation of tangible for each major issue by examining their underlying
objects that represent or embody ideas and their 3.1 F o u r basic objects a few dozen Support, Argument, and Comment links
arguments.
interconnections. A notecard is an electronic generalization of the 3x5 between cards, although these links do not appear to

NoteCards. Xerox PARC
paper notecard. Each notecard contains an arbitrary function any differently than the See and Unspecified For his task, VanLehn invented the matrix
Second, real-world idea processing tasks require summary card as shown in Figure 4. The summary
manipulating moderately large amounts of amount of some editable "substance" such as a piece of links.
text, a structured drawing, or a bitmap image. Each The author used this FileBox hierarchy card is a matrix of links providing an overview of the
information. Support for idea processing presupposes
card also has a title. Although the intent is that each primarily as a filing structure that insured easy access information relevant to the evaluation of a set of
support for the task of managing this information. competing hypotheses. Each column in the matrix
Thus, NoteCards provides storage and retrievalof idea card should contain about the same amount of to information as it was needed. The structure of the
information as a typical 3x5 card, the system imposes paper he wrote only vaguely reflected the structure of represents a fact or feature about the world, e.g., the
structures as well as tools to organize, maintain, and result of an experimental study. At the top of each
exsmine the structure of the stored information. no constraints on the size of a notecard. On the screen, his FileBox hierarchy, suggesting that he organized
cards are displayed using standard Xerox Lisp the paper outside the context of NoteCards. Although column is a link to a card describing the factor feature.
Third, idea processing is an inherently variable Each row in the matrix represents one of the
windows as shown in Figure 1. he created links between the non-FileBox cards, he did
activity. Each specific idea processing task requires competing hypotheses. O n the right end the row is a
specializedrepresentations and tools for manipulating Every notecard can be "edited", i.e., retrieved not appear to use these links while outlining and link to a card describing the hypothesis.
and analyzing idea structures. Moreover as a user from the database and displayed on the screen in an writing the paper (Monty & Moran, 1986).
editor window that provides the user with an In each cell of the matrix is a + (or -- or 0) link
progresses through a given task, the character and to an argument card containing a short explanation of
opportunity to modify the card's substance. There are 4.2 Using links in competitive a r g u m e n t a t i o n
requirements of the task often change. Thus, how the fact represented by the cell's column supports
NoteCards is a tailorable system that includes an various types of notecards, differentiated (in part) by The writing project described above involved relatively
the nature of the substance (e.g., text or graphics) that little analysis of the information that was being (or rebuts, or is irrelevant to) the hypothesis
extensive set of protocols and methods which can be represented by the cell's row. Using a matrix card,
used to m a k e modifications to the system. they contain. In addition to a set of standard card organized using NoteCards. In contrast, Kurt

,_;apaDilil l e s o l N e w U ~ss~leo :~:~:~.,.~,~:!:..:.:~+..;:,:~.:,,.i!~ M a p : U iss i le R a n q e s :'.:il]:~i)iii: i::! i: .i:i :~ii.: .:: .~~:/:;:. ::.':'~ 6..~.="-'~#~%=~" ............. ~
...............
~ ~l .:.:.~.~.:~:.:.;:.:.~:.:.:.:.:.:...............~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~..~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.:~......~.....:.:...........:..:........:.:..:....:..~..~.:~................';i~/~/~/~/"~ i i ~
:=. .. ~:==::~ ...:.~ ,:....~...:~:.: .~ .~. ~..~.....~.....,.....~... ... :.:..~.~:....:.~.. '/ !
.

{
.... ..........{
~
Even though the weapons in q u e s t i o n
replace older weapons (the Pershing
IA a n d t h e V u l c a n b o m b e r ) , b o t h a r e
capable of more .destruction faster
than their predecessors. T h i s is t h e l ~-~.N.O_F.r.~ Use Prnposi, ) { Cr|tidsms of' No First Use J
result of new radar guidance . { ProoosAIs rer TNF Chanoe I ~ "r -- - -
systems, wilh new levels of accuracy. ' " ~ ' -'-"-'~-{ Nucle4r Free Zone Propos41 {
A l s o h a v e s u f f i c i e n t r a n g e t o rrJake
vulnerable i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d c i t i e s in / /{ Ortgies of NATO Doctrir~e {
tE~e '~A/e:3tern US::3R, in t h e c a s e o f t h e
P 2, w i t h i n a m a t t e r o f m i n u t e s . /I TNF Doctrine i ~ _ I~ . T ~ _ ~ _ . ~ ~ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ P~a~ f ~ C0 . . . . ~|onal Strengthenl~9 {
(p, 371) See I G"k'"~" of Pershing ,,]
~.~

~k ''~'~ '"~'~"

,.............. ,
~" "~" ~

hmv
"~[ Soviet TNE Ooctrioe { { Ori~es of Soviet Doctrine {
'*The new American P e r s h i n g il
missile, fitted with a radar-heming
w a r h e a d , is d e s i g n e d t o b e e v e n
more accurate. .As it f a l l s b a c k t o
earth this compares a radar image
o f t h e t a r g e t w i t h a n i m a g e s t o r e d in i!!i
its c:on-lpuler m e m o r y . It : 3 h o u l l d Re~cticn to Deployment Decision in NAIO Countries
t h e n b e a b l e t o s d j u s t its f l i g h t p a t h
s o a s t o hit ils t a r g e t w i t h p i n - p o i n t
accuracy a f t e r :9 j o u r n e y o f 1 , 6 0 0
kilometers." (p. 1 3 )
See
~1Federal Republic of Germany {
.(_U~ecified) Tomahawk Characteristics I

~ Cd..CM character sties
UIS TNF M{ss]ies ----'-'~ '
' '-'-'--i Pershing li ch.raczerlszics ]
Figure 1: Example notecards with embedded link icons. ~:!SiS!:!:::!:!~!;!:!:!:!:!:!:!~!;i~i:!:!~!~i:!~i:i:!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:!~!:!:!:!:!:!:!*~!:i:!:!~!~!:i;i;i:i:i~!:!:!:!:!:!:!:i:!:!~:~!~!;i:!~i:!~i~!:!:i~i:~!:!:!:!~!:!:!:!:!:!:!~!:!~!:!:i:!:i:i~i~i:!:!~!~i:!~!:!:!~!:!:!:!:!

Figure 3: Browser of the FileBox hierarchy from the public policy (Nato-missiles) NoteFiie.

Randall H. Trigg og Peggy M. Irish. “Hypertext Habitats.” Proceedings ofconference
Indeterminate“. Proceedings of the 20th national Hypertext
Cleveland, Ohio, United States. New‘87. New York: ACM, 1987.
York: ACM, 1965. 84-100

1985
Intermedia. Brown University
Intermedia. Brown University

Indeterminate“. Proceedings of the 20th national conference
George P. Landow. Hypertext. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Cleveland, Ohio, United States. New York: ACM, 1965. 84-100

which appear one at a time on the screen.

1986
The most important mechanism in Guide for exploring documents is the rqhcement-button. The
replacement-button is a button within the document. It is an example of the ‘embedded menu’ described by
Guide. Peter Brown, Kent University
Koved and Schneiderman (1985), and implemented in their TlES system. When selected with the mouse, a
Guide button is replaced in-line by the material linked with that button (as distinct from TIES, which causes a
new frame to replace the current one). Typically the author will present a document initially in summary form,
with replacement-buttons to allow the user to expand the parts of the document that interest him. For readers of
this paper who are unfamiliar with Guide, Figure 1 shows how a document may initially be presented. The
replacement-buttons are shown in a bold font - the same font as the menu. In Figure 1 all the replacement-
buttons have the label More, though the author could, if he chose, have given them different labels. Figure 2
shows the result of selecting the More replacement-button below ‘Malaysia’s MMC Metals in Figure 1 (a close
look at Figure 1 will show the cursor pointing at this).

r & File Edit Search Display format font Size Hake

New York shares
-’ routd 27.52 polna m L rtroti 1431 .BB cbrc.
.;i Mart
:,,$ LLoyd’s of London
:;:’ chitrtrccmivt,hn~~Ymrtir,ur nrigntlf.
x1:;. Won
.:l. Malaysia’s MMC Metals

‘jii:
:j_i:
.:::
I”

Figure 2: outcomefrom Figure 1 when the thirdMore is selected
Figure I: an initial view of a document

Typically the replacement of a button itself contains further buttons. A reader explores a
sively expanding buttons, until he reaches the level of detail he wants. He thus tailors
Peter screen to his reading needs. Into Products“. Proceedings of Hypertext ‘87
Brown: “Turning Ideas
November1987 Hypertext‘87 Papers 35
Sometimes the reader will wish to go back to a lesser level of detail. He can at any time ‘
of any button previously selected, thus folding the replacement back under its 33–40 but
New York: ACM, 1987. original
space and generally makes the document more manageable and understandable. As the u
mechanism is particularly simple: if anything you seeis at too great a level of detail you ju

Hvorfor digitalisere?

• Behandle


• Behandle
• Fotorealisme/high ﬁdelity


• Behandle
• Distribuere i nett


• Behandle
• Distribuere i nett
• Flytte mellom plattformer

Lev Manovich:
«New Media»
• Numerisk representasjon
• Modularitet
• Automatisering
• Variabilitet
• Transkoding

Teknologi Økonomi

Medium

§ Bruk

En mediemodell

Trender nå
• Data overalt (fortsatt):

• Ubicomp (ubiquitous computing)

• Wearable computing

• Smart buildings

• Enhanced Reality

• Locative media

• Web-applikasjoner, tjenester (f.eks. sosiale medier) (fortsatt)

• Nye, mobile dingser (fortsatt)

• Multiplattform (fortsatt)

Noen kjappe
designregler
• Design toasters, not posters

Noen kjappe
designregler
• Test early, test often

Noen kjappe
designregler
• Mobile dingser er best når de gjør én ting

Noen kjappe
designregler
• Mobile dingser er best når de gjør én ting
• Ha en plan for oppdatering!

Manovich, Lev. The Language of New Media.
Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001.

Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Nick Montfort, eds.
The New Media Reader. Cambridge: MIT Press,
2003.

Ars Electronica, utstilling i Linz

anders@fagerjord.no

http://fagerjord.no

Digitale Mediers Historie

Digitale Mediers Historie

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