Unit 2. A. Plant Drug Cultivation and Collection| Pharmacognosy Unit 2 | B.Pharm Semester IV

Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry-I
Unit 2. A : Cultivation, Collection, Processing and Storage
of Drugs of Natural Origin
Class : IV semester B. Pharm
Presented by:
Ms. Asha Golasangimath
Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacognosy
Alva’s College of Pharmacy, Moodubidire
Affiliated to RGUHS, Karnataka
Academic Year: 2025–2026

Index
• Introduction
• Methods of Cultivation
• Good Agricultural Practices. (GAP)
• Good Cultivation Practices.(GCP)
• Good Collection Practices.
• Collection of crude drugs.
• Processing of crude drugs.
• Factors influencing cultivation of medicinal
plants.
Alva's College of Pharmacy, Moodubidire 2

Introduction
Introduction to Drugs of Natural Origin
What are Natural Drugs?
– Derived from plants, animals, minerals and microorganisms
– Most of modern medicines originate from plants
Examples: Morphine (Papaver somniferum),
Digoxin (Digitalis purpurea),
Quinine (Cinchona officinalis)

Cultivation refers to the intentional growing and nurturing of
medicinal plants under controlled conditions to obtain high-
quality crude drugs.
It includes:
• Selecting the right plant species
• Preparing soil and irrigation
• Using fertilizers and pest control
• Harvesting at the right time
• Consistent quality and efficacy.
• Conservation of endangered species.
• Increase the yield and uniformity
• Prevent adulteration
• Ensure continuous supply
• Increasing demand vs. limited wild resources
Example :
1. Digitalis purpurea (cardiovascular diseases) must be
cultivated in cool climates to ensure high glycoside content.
2. Curcuma longa (antiseptic and anti-inflammatory) cultivated
in humid climatic conditions.

• Cultivation of medicinal plants require intensive care and
management, which affects the quality of the medicinal plants.
• Cultivation is done by two methods:
1. Vegetative propagation (Asexual propagation)
2. Seed propagation (sexual propagation)

GOOD
CULTIVATION
PRACTICES

Standard for GoodAgricultural Practices(GAP)

Good Cultivation Practice (GCP):
Good Cultivation Practices (GCP) are the recommended methods followed
during cultivation of medicinal plants to ensure high quality, safety, consistency,
and better yield of medicinal plant materials.
These practices help produce medicinal plants with maximum active constituents
and minimum contamination.
Principles of Good Cultivation Practice:
1.Selection of Site
• Site selection: Medicinal plant materials derived from the same species
can show differences in the quality when cultivated at different sites owing
to the influence of soil, climate and other factors.
• Choose suitable soil and climate conditions.
• Avoid polluted areas.
Importance:
• Improves plant growth
• Reduces disease incidence
• Enhances medicinal quality

2. Quality of Planting Material
• Use healthy, disease-free seeds or planting materials.
• Genetically pure varieties, High germination capacity.
Importance:
• Uniform crop growth
• Higher yield
• Better active constituent production
3. Soil preparation and soil Management
• The soil should contain appropriate amount of nutrients, organic matter
and other elements to ensure optimal medicinal plant growth and quality.
• It include Ploughing, Removal of weeds, Addition of organic manure,
Maintaining soil fertility, Soil pH correction.
Importance:
• Better nutrient availability
• Improved aeration
• Healthy root growth

4. Irrigation and drainage:
• It should be controlled and carried out in accordance with needs of
individual medicinal plants during its various stages of growth.
• It includes adequate water supply, avoid waterlogging/ wastage and Use
efficient irrigation methods. Use clean irrigation water (free from harmful
chemicals, low salinity, neutral pH )
Methods:
• Drip irrigation
• Sprinkler irrigation
• Surface irrigation
Importance: Maintains plant metabolism
and Improves yield
5. Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides
• Use recommended quantities.
• Avoid excessive chemical use.
6.Weed and Pest Control
• Follow proper pest management methods..
• Encourage biological control methods.

7.Harvesting at Proper Time
• Medicinal plants should be harvested during the optimal
season or time period to ensure the production of medicinal
plant materials and finished herbal products of best possible
quality. It is well known that the concentration of biologically
active constituents varies with stage of plant growth and
development.
– Collect plants at correct maturity for maximum active constituents.
8.Post-Harvest Handling
•Proper cleaning, drying, packaging, and storage.
9.Worker Safety and Hygiene
•Maintain cleanliness and use protective equipment.
10.Environmental Protection
•Conserve biodiversity and minimize pollution

Advantages:
•Produces high-quality medicinal plants
•Improves yield
•Reduces contamination
•Ensures safety and quality
•Protects environment
Example: Following GAP in cultivation of medicinal plants like
Ashwagandha, Aloe vera, and Senna improves crude drug quality.

Factors Affecting Cultivation
Environmental Factors
• Altitude
• Temperature
• Rainfall and irrigation
• Humidity
• Light
• Soil and soil fertility
• Fertilizers
• Pest and pest control
• Growth regulators
• Green house effect
Examples:
• Tea grows well in hilly areas
• Cinchona prefers high rainfall
• Sandy soil suitable for some aromatic plants

Altitude and Temperature
Effect on Medicinal Plants
1. Altitude
• Influences growth and chemical constituents
• Higher altitude may increase volatile oils
Examples:
• Tea cultivated at an altitude of 1000-2000m
• Cinnamon n cardamom are cultivated at 1000m
• Senna can be cultivated at sea level
2. Temperature
• Affects photosynthesis and metabolism
• Extreme temperatures reduce growth
Examples:
• Opium poppy prefers cool climate
• Aloe grows in warm regions

Rainfall, Humidity and Light
Rainfall
• Adequate water is necessary for growth.
• Excess rainfall may cause root rot.
Humidity
• Influences enzyme activity and disease development
Light
• Essential for photosynthesis
• Duration and intensity affect secondary metabolites
• Examples:
• Digitalis requires sunlight
• Shade-loving plants need less light

Water and Irrigation
• Rainfall and irrigation affects the plant growth an
development.
• Water is essential for nutrient transport and
metabolic activities.
Importance:
• Maintains cell turgidity
• Helps in photosynthesis
• Influences the yield of plants
Excess irrigation may cause Root diseases and
Nutrient loss

Soil and Fertility
Soil
• Soil provides nutrients and support to the plant growth
• Soil should have Good drainage, property, proper pH and good water holding capacity
Types of Soil
• Soil is the upper layer of earth that supports plant growth by providing water, nutrients, and anchorage.
Different medicinal plants require different soil types.
• 1. Sandy Soil
• Sandy soil is of large soil particles with good drainage but low water-holding capacity and low nutrient retention.
Advantages:
• Easy root penetration
• Good aeration
Examples: Carrot, Groundnut
2. Clay Soil: Clay particles are very fine particles, high water-holding capacity, Poor drainage and Rich in nutrients
Advantages:
• Retains nutrients well
• Suitable for water-loving plants
• Examples: Rice cultivation
Disadvantages:
Nutrients wash away easily
Requires frequent irrigation
Disadvantages:
Poor aeration
Waterlogging may occur

3. Loamy Soil: loamy soil is Mixture of sand, clay, and silt
Good drainage have High fertility Good water retention
Advantages:
• Best soil for cultivation
• Suitable for many medicinal plants
Examples: Most medicinal plants grow well in loamy soil.
4. Silt Soil : silt soil is rich in nutrients and organic substances
with Fine particles, and Holds moisture well.
• It is called as fertile soil which is very much helpful in
growth of plants.
5. Peaty Soil: is Rich in organic matter, Dark colored and
Holds large amounts of water
6. Chalky Soil: it Contains calcium carbonate , Alkaline in
nature and have Good drainage capacity.

Soil Fertility: Soil fertility is the ability of soil to provide essential nutrients to plants
in adequate amounts for proper growth and development.
Fertilizers are 3 types
1. Biological fertilizers
2. Synthetic fertilizers
3. Chemical fertilizers
Biological fertilizers: Soil is generally poor in organic matter and nitrogen so to
fulfill this fertilizers are added
• Manures: manure is mixed with soil which supply almost all the nutrients
required by crop plants.
Ex: Farmyard manure, composite manure and green manure.
• Biofertilizers: these are biologically active products or bacteria, algae and fungi
which bring enrichment in soil nutrients.

• Factors Affecting Soil Fertility
• Organic matter content
• Soil pH
• Water availability
• Microbial activity
• Fertilizer application
• Soil texture
Macronutrients Micronutrients
Nitrogen (N) Iron (Fe)
Calcium (Ca) Zinc (Zn)
Magnesium (Mg) Copper (Cu)
Potassium (K) Manganese (Mn)
Sulfur (S) Boron (B)
Methods to Improve Soil Fertility
• Addition of organic manure
• Crop rotation
• Green manure
• Fertilizer application
• Proper irrigation
• Soil conservation methods
Chemical fertiizers :

Pest and pest control
A pest is any organism that damages medicinal plants or
agricultural crops, reducing their growth, quality, and
yield.
• Pests may feed on leaves, stems, roots, flowers, or
stored plant materials.
Types of Pests
• Insect Pests : Damage plant parts by feeding.
Examples: Caterpillars, Grasshoppers
• Rodents : Damage seeds and stored crude drugs.
Examples: Rats, Mice
• Nematodes Microscopic worms attacking roots.
Cause poor growth and reduced yield.
Ex: root-knot nematode (attack roots and forms
galls)
• Birds : Feed on seeds and fruits. (sparrow, parrots
crows)
• Other mammals: cattle, goat, monkey.
Harmful Effects of Pests
Reduced plant growth
Lower crop yield
Poor medicinal quality
Disease transmission
Economic loss

Pest Control
• Pest control is the process of preventing or reducing pest damage to maintain
healthy plant growth and improve crop productivity.
Methods of Pest Control
1. Agricultural method: used to reduce pests.
• Examples: Crop rotation, Proper irrigation, Field sanitation, Removal of
infected plants
• Growing legumes after cereals reduces pest buildup.
2. Mechanical Control: require manual labor and devices for physical removal
of pests.
• Examples: Hand picking insects (caterpillars and beetles) , Traps , burning
and pruning.

3. Biological Control: safe and economical method of pest control
• Using natural enemies to control pests.
• Examples: Ladybird beetles control aphids , Parasitic insects, Microorganisms
4. Chemical Control: Use of chemical pesticides and insecticides.
• Examples: Fungicides (chlorophenols, antibiotics), Herbicides (Glyphosate) ,
Insecticides (DDT, malathion)
Advantage: Quick action, controls pests rapidly, useful during severe pest attack.
Disadvantage: Excessive use may harm environment, leave pesticide residue on
crops, pollutes soil and water.
5. Natural Pest Management (NPM): these are obtained from natural sources such
as plant or mineral derivatives.
Ex: nicotine from tobacco (insecticide), pyrethrum from chrysanthemum flowers
(flies, aphids mosquitoes).
Advantages:
• Environment friendly
• Reduces chemical use
• Sustainable pest control

Collection of Medicinal Plants
Collection of medicinal plants should be at appropriate
season or period.
The best time to collect medicinal plant material should be
according to maximum active constituents present.
Important Points:
• Correct identification
• Right season
• Proper maturity
• Suitable weather conditions
Examples:
• Leaves collected before flowering
• Roots collected in dormant season

Good Collection Practices (GCP)
• Permission for collection (where applicable):
Compliance with CITES (Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora) regulations.
• Technical planning- collecting technique, equipment
and transport.
• Selection of medicinal plant for collection- species
should be same as authoritative national documents.
Identification and authentication.
• Personnel- education, training and experience .
“Clothing , hygiene and Documentation”.

Processing of Crude Drugs
Operations performed after collection to preserve
quality. It include:
• Washing
• Drying
• Garbling
• Grinding
• Packaging
Processing is necessary to prevent microbial
growth, preserve active constituents and improve
appearance.

Drying of Crude Drugs
• Drying is the process of removing moisture from crude drugs after
collection to prevent microbial growth, enzymatic decomposition, and
spoilage, thereby maintaining the quality and active constituents.
Drying Methods
1. Natural drying
2. Artificial drying
1. Natural Drying: Drying is carried out using natural environmental
conditions.
A) Sun Drying
B) Shade Drying

A) Sun Drying:
– Crude drugs are spread under direct sunlight.
– It is suitable for drugs that are not affected by heat.
Examples: Seeds, Roots, Barks
Advantages: it is simple and economical
Disadvantages: due to heat there may be chances of loss of volatile
constituents & is weather dependent.
B) Shade Drying
– Drugs are dried under shade with good air circulation.
– Suitable for heat-sensitive drugs.
Examples: Leaves, Flowers, Aromatic plants
Advantages: This method help to Preserves color and Protects volatile
oils
Disadvantages: it is a slow process

2. Artificial Drying: Drying is done using equipment under controlled
conditions.
Types of artificial drying :
A) Hot Air Drying (Hot air oven, Tray Dryer)
B) Vacuum Drying
C) Spray Drying
D) Freeze Drying (Lyophilization)
E) Infrared Drying
A) Hot Air Drying (Hot air oven): Warm air (40–60°C) is circulated around crude
drugs.
Advantages: it is faster and uniform drying method.
Examples: Medicinal leaves, Roots
B) Vacuum Drying: Drying occurs under reduced pressure.
Advantages: it is Suitable for heat-sensitive compounds and to prevents oxidation
Examples: Volatile oil-containing drugs

C) Spray Drying: Liquid extracts are converted into dry powder
by spraying into hot air.
Advantages: it provides Rapid drying and uniform powder
formation.
Examples: Herbal extracts, fruit juice powder
D) Freeze Drying (Lyophilization): Water is removed by
sublimation at low temperature.
Advantages: Maintains chemical stability, preserves active
constituents.
Disadvantages: it is an expensive method
Examples: Biological products, Heat-sensitive medicinal
materials (vaccines, enzymes, antibiotics)
E) Infrared Drying: Infrared radiation provides heat for drying.
Advantages: Fast drying and energy efficient.

Storage of Crude Drugs
• Storage of crude drugs is the process of keeping crude drugs under suitable
environmental conditions to maintain their quality, potency, stability, and
medicinal value until they are used.
• Proper storage prevents deterioration, contamination, and loss of active
constituents.
Requirements:
1. Cool and dry place: High temperature may destroy active constituents,
encourage fungal growth and cause decomposition.
Example: Powder drugs easily absorb moisture.
2. Protection from Temperature: High temperature may destroy heat sensitive
compounds, cause evaporation of volatile oils and reduce potency. Proper heat
Prevents decomposition and maintains drug stability.
3. Protection from Light: Direct sunlight may degrade certain constituents. Light
sensitive drugs should be store in amber-colored bottle in dark place.
Examples affected by light: Volatile oils, Pigments, Alkaloids

4. Protection from Air (Oxidation): Exposure to oxygen may lead to oxidation.
Examples: Volatile oils become rancid
Prevention: Use airtight containers
Types of Containers:
– Glass containers
– Metal containers
– Plastic containers
5. Protection from Insects and Rodents: Pests damage stored crude drugs.
Examples: Beetles , Mites , Rats and Mice
Control Measures: Fumigation, Pest control methods , Proper sanitation
6. Protection from Microorganisms: Bacteria and fungi reduce quality.
It can be prevented by proper drying before storage & hygienic storage conditions

Factors Affecting Storage
Deterioration During Storage
• Moisture
• Temperature
• Light
• Insects
• Rodents
• Microorganisms
Prevention:
• Proper packaging
• Use of preservatives
• Fumigation
• Regular inspection

Cultivation of Curcuma longa (GCP)
1. Climate : Warm, humid tropical climate(20-30℃) with well distribute
rainfall.
2. Soil: Sandy loams rich in organic matter and uniform in texture (pH 4.5-
7.5).
3. Selection of plant material: Healthy, disease free rhizomes with high
yielding variety.
4. Planting time: May-June
5. Irrigation and drainage: First irrigation should be before planting
second irrigation should be just after planting in field. 25-30 irrigation at
intervals of 7-10 days is required during entire period of growth.
6. Plant maintenance and protection : using fertilizers like farmyard and
pest controllers, maintain field hygiene.
7. Harvesting: 7-8 months after planting leaves turns yellow and dry on
maturity.
8. Post harvesting: Boiling, drying and polishing.
9. Personnel : All personnel (including field workers) involved in
propagation, cultivation, harvest and post harvest processing stages of
medicinal plant production should maintain appropriate personnel
hygiene and should have received training regarding their hygiene
responsibilities. Growers and producers should have adequate knowledge
of medicinal plant concerned. Alva's College of Pharmacy, Moodubidire 39

Modern farming methods in India
• Hydroponics: This is the method of
growing plants without soil using a nutrient-
rich water solution.
Ex: tomato, pepper, strawberry.
• Aeroponics: It is a method in which plants
are grown without soil and roots are
suspended in air.
Ex: lettuce, spinach.
• Aquaponics: aquaponics combines fish
farming with hydroponics. Fish feed the
plants and the plants clean the water for fish.
Ex: cucumber, mint.
• Monoculture: This method is growing a
single crop in a specific area of farming.
Ex: corn, wheat, rice, cotton.

• Summary
• Medicinal plants are important natural sources of
drugs
• Cultivation ensures quality and quantity
• Processing and storage maintain drug stability
• Plant hormones regulate growth
• Polyploidy, mutation and hybridization improve
medicinal plants
• Conservation protects valuable species

Summary
• Cultivation of medicinal plants ensures quality, safety,
and consistent supply of crude drugs.
• Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) maintain soil health,
hygiene, proper irrigation, use of fertilizers, pest control,
and correct harvesting time.
• Modern farming methods like hydroponics, aeroponics,
aquaponics, and monoculture improve yield and efficiency.
• Good Collection Practices (GCP) ensure proper
identification, authentication, season, stage of maturity, and
hygienic handling of medicinal plants.

• Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy
• Practical Pharmacognosy by CK Kokate
• WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and
Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal
Plants

Unit 2. A. Plant Drug Cultivation and Collection| Pharmacognosy Unit 2 | B.Pharm Semester IV

Unit 2. A. Plant Drug Cultivation and Collection| Pharmacognosy Unit 2 | B.Pharm Semester IV

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Unit 2. A. Plant Drug Cultivation and Collection| Pharmacognosy Unit 2 | B.Pharm Semester IV