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TISSUE Class 9 CBSE Sathvik Prasanna
INTRODUCTION The living organisms either unicellular like amoeba or multicellular like human beings have different life processes. In unicellular organism all the life processes are carried out within a single cell. In multicellular organisms due to increase in body size, it is difficult for each cell to efficiently cope with the vast variety of the physiological needs of the organisms, so cells differentiate into specific tissues to perform specific functions. In human being nerve cells carry messages and blood flows to transport oxygen, food, hormones and waste materials. In plants vascular tissues conduct food, water and minerals from one part of the plant to other
TISSUE - DEFINITION A group of cells that are similar in structure and perform common function is called tissue. The term tissue was coined by Bichat. The study of internal structure of any part of an organism is called anatomy. The study of tissue with the help of microscope is called histology. Importance of tissues Workload of individual cell has decreased. Tissues become organized to form organs and organs into organ systems. Formation of tissues has brought about division of labour in multicellular organisms.Multicellular organisms have higher survival due to improved body organization and higher efficiency of functions.
PLANT TISSUES
PLANT TISSUE Plants are stationary so they require more of supportive tissue for obtaining structural strength. Most of these tissues are dead and hence they provide more mechanical strength and they require less energy for their maintenance. The growth of plants is limited to certain regions.In these regions, growing tissues are present, which have capacity to divide throughout life. Plant tissues can be classified into two groups on the basis of their division capacity, meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT TISSUE
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE These are living tissues which are capable of division.These tissues are found in growing regions of plants. Cells have thin cell wall. Cells contain dense cytoplasm and do not have vacuoles.Cells contain prominent and large nucleus. Intercellular spaces are absent.Metabolically active cells and stored food is absent. Function- Meristematic tissue is responsible for the growth in length and width(girth) of plant.
CLASSIFICATION OF MERISTEMATIC TISSUE (i) Apical meristem It is present at the growing tips of shoot and root.Root apical meristem is covered by root cap which protects it from the rubbing of soil particles. They are responsible for increase in the length of shoot and root. (ii) Intercalary meristem Intercalary meristem may be present at the internode as in grasses, bamboo and mints or the base of Pinus leaves. They are responsible for the growth in length of plant organs. Apical and intercalary meristem are responsible for primary growth of plant (growth in length). (iii) Lateral meristem It lies on the lateral sides of stem and root or occurs along the sides of longitudinal axis of the plant. It helps in increasing the diameter (girth or width) of plant. Hence helps in secondary growth. Lateral meristem is of two types, vascular cambium and cork cambium. Vascular cambium produces secondary phloem and secondary xylem. Cork cambium (phellogen) produces a protective cork on the outside.
PERMANENT TISSUE They are formed by division and differentiation of meristematic tissue. They are composed of those cells which have lost the power of division (temporarily or permanently) and attained a permanent shape, size and function. Cells may be living or dead. Permanent tissues are of two types, simple permanent tissue and complex permanent tissue.
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE These tissues are made up of similar types of cells, that perform a common function. They are protective and supportive in nature. Simple tissues are of three types (i) Parenchyma (ii) Collenchyma (iii) Sclerenchyma
PARENCHYMA It is a living and basic packaging tissue which consists of relatively unspecialised cells. Parenchyma is the first evolved permanent tissue which is present in all soft parts of plant (therefore called universal tissue). Cells of this tissue have thin cell wall which is made up of cellulose. Cells of this tissue have cytoplasm with small nucleus and large vacuole. Cells are usually loosely packed so intercellular spaces are present. FUNCTION This tissue provides support to the plant and help in storage of food.
MODIFICATIONS OF PARENCHYMA (a) Chlorenchyma Chlorenchyma is the type of parenchyma in which chloroplasts (contains chlorophylls) are found. They are present in mesophyll of leaves. FUNCTION Synthesis of food (Photosynthesis). (b) Aerenchyma Parenchyma made up of rounded cells which surrounds the large air cavities. It is found in aquatic plants or hydrophytes. FUNCTION It provides buoyancy to the aquatic plants to help them float.
COLLENCHYMA Cells of this tissue are living, flexible, elongated or vary in structure. Cells of this tissue are irregularly thickened at the corners due to the deposition of pectin.Intercellular spaces are very little or absent It is present below the epidermis of leaf stalk, herbaceous dicot stem and at the margin of leaves. FUNCTIONS It provides mechanical support (tensile strength) and elasticity. It allows easy bending in various parts of plant (leaf and stem) without breaking i.e. it provides flexibility to plant.
SCLERENCHYMA Sclerenchyma cells are dead, narrow and long cells which are devoid of protoplasm. The walls of cells of sclerenchyma are greatly thickened with deposition of lignin. Such cell walls are called lignified. The cells of sclerenchyma are closely packed without intercellular spaces. They are found in stems, roots, veins of leaves (in vascular bundle), hard coverings of seed and fruits. FUNCTIONS They form hypodermis of monocot stem. It is the main mechanical tissue which provides mechanical support. It makes the plant hard and stiff.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCLERENCHYMA 1. Sclerenchyma fibres: They constitute the major mechanical tissue of the plants and are abundantly found in plants. Commercial fibres obtained from plants (e.g. jute, flax, hemp, husk of coconut) usually are sclerenchymatous fibres. 2. Sclereids (grit or stone cells): They are highly thickened and irregularly shaped dead cells.They are found in various parts of the plant such as cortex, pith and hard seed coat. Sclereids provide strength to seed covering and grittiness to the pulp of many fruits, such as guava, apple and pear.
COMPARISON BETWEEN PARENCHYMA, COLLENCHYMA AND SCLERENCHYMA.
COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE
COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE The complex tissues consist of more than one type of cells. All these cells coordinate to perform a common function. Complex tissues are of the following two types : (i) Xylem or wood (ii) Phloem or bast
XYLEM Xylem is made up of four types of cells 1. Tracheids 2. Vessels 3. Xylem fibres - Dead elements 4. Xylem parenchyma - Living element Tracheids- Tracheids are elongated cells with tapering ends. Since tracheids do not have open ends like the vessels, so the water has to pass from cell to cell via the pits. Vessels or tracheae- Very long tube like structures formed by a row of cells placed end to end. The transverse walls between the vessels are completely dissolved to form continuous channels or water-pipes. Tracheids and vessels help in long distance conduction ofnwater and minerals vertically or upward from the root Xylem fibre- These are dead and lignified sclerenchymatous cells which are mainly supportive in function. Xylem parenchyma It is formed of living parenchymatous cells which helps in storage of food and lateral conduction of water and minerals.
PHLOEM Sieve tubes-Sieve tubes are slender, tube like structures composed of elongated cells, placed end to end. Their end walls are perforated by numerous pores and are called sieve plates. The nucleus of each sieve tube degenerates at maturity, however cytoplasm persists in the mature sieve tube. Thus, nuclei are absent in mature sieve tube elements. Companion cells -These are associated with sieve tubes. These are smaller cells having dense cytoplasm and prominent nucleus. The companion cells help the sieve tubes in the conduction of food material. Phloem parenchyma These are living and thin walled cells which helps in sideways conduction of food. They store various materials like resin, latex and mucilage. They are absent in monocots. Phloem fibres- are dead sclerenchymatous cells. Phloem or bast fibres of some plants are source of commercial fibres e.g. Jute, Hemp, Flax. Function of phloem- Phloem transport photosynthetically prepared food materials in both the directions from the leaves to the storage organs and latter from storage organs to the growing regions of the plant body.
XYLEM V/S PHLOEM
EPIDERMIS It is the outermost layer of all organs of plant body which is formed from parenchymal cells. In epidermal cell outside walls are thicker than inner wall. It is mostly single layered but in desert plant it is multi layered for protection against water loss. It protects the internal tissue from mechanical injuries and entry of germs. Cuticle : The outer wall of epidermis of aerial parts of plant secretes and deposits a waxy substance, called cutin which form a water proof layer called cuticle.
EPIDERMIS It checks the loss of water by transpiration and mechanical injuries and invasion of parasitic fungi. Epidermis of leaves has large number of microscopic aperture called stomata. Stomata: Each stomata is an elliptical aperture bounded by two kidney shaped guard cells which regulate opening and closing of stomata.Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapours) takes place through stomata. Stomata helps in exchange of gases. Root hairs: Epidermis of roots (epiblema) have root hairs which greatly increase their surface area for absorption of water and minerals. Root Hair
CORK OR PHELLEM Cork is the peripheral tissue of old stems and roots of woody trees and is formed due to activity of cork cambium or phellogen (secondary / lateral meristem).It is made up of dead cells with thick wall but no intercellular spaces. The walls of cork cells are heavily thickened by the deposition of an organic substance (a fatty substance), called suberin. Suberin makes these cell impermeable to water and gases and it also helps in conservation of water in the trees.sides, thus, forming cork (phellem) on the outer side and the secondary cortex or phelloderm on the inner side. Commercial importance of cork- Cork is light and highly compressible and cork is used in the making of a variety of sports goods such as cricket balls, table tennis, shuttlecocks, wooden paddles etc.
ANIMAL TISSUES
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL TISSUES
EPITHELIUM - NATURE It is the simplest tissue. It is the protective tissue of animal's body. It covers most organs and cavities within the body. It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.Epithelial cells are closely packed and have small amount of cementing material, so there is very little inter-cellular spaces present between the cells. Due to absence or less intercellular spaces, blood vessels, lymph vessels and capillaries are unable to pierce this tissue, so blood circulation is absent in epithelium. Hence cells depend for their nutrients on the underlying connective tissue. It always rest upon underlying connective tissue. At the junction of the Epithelial tissue and connective tissue a layer is present which is called basement membrane (non cellular fibrous), formed of mucopolysaccharides
TYPES OF EPITHELIUM (i) Squamous Description: Flattened cells, extremely thin. Common locations: Blood vessel walls, alveoli of lungs, Buccal cavity, skin, Function: Diffusion
TYPES OF EPITHELIUM (ii) Cuboidal Description: cube like cells, may have microvilli at its free surface Common locations: lining of kidney tubules, thyroid gland, ducts of salivary glands and sweat gland. It forms germinal epithelium of gonads (testes and ovaries) Function: Secretion, absorption, mechanical support and germ cells formation.
TYPES OF EPITHELIUM (iii) Columnar (Pillar like) Description: tall slender cells ; may have microvilli at their free surface. Common locations: Inner lining of small intestine, stomach, colon and part of respiratory tract lining. Border of microvilli present at free surface end of each cell increases absorption efficiency in small intestine. Function: Secretion, absorption.
TYPES OF EPITHELIUM Ciliated epithelium Description: It consists of cells that bear hair like structures (cilia) on its external surfaces. Cells in it may be cuboidal or columnar in shape. Cilia helps in the movement of substances. Common location: It is found in kidney tubules, trachea, oviduct, etc. Functions: It helps in movement of substances.
TYPES OF EPITHELIUM Glandular epithelium Description: Tall, slender cells, some cells from the free surface invaginate inside to form secretory cells – goblet cells. Common location: Lining of intestine & glands Function: Secretion of mucus and other secretions.
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded into a non cellular matrix. The matrix may be solid (as in bone), soft (as in loose connective tissue), or liquid (as in blood). On the basis of nature of matrix, connective tissue are:- (1) Connective tissue proper (2) Fluid / vascular connective tissue (3) Skeletal connective tissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (i) Loose connective tissue or Areolar connective tissue Loose connective tissue is a mass of widely scattered cells whose matrix is a loose weave of fibres. Many of the fibres are strong protein fibres called collagen. Loose connective tissue is found beneath the skin and between organs. It is a binding and packing material whose main purpose is to provide support to hold other tissue and organs in place.It is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels, nerves and in bone marrow.
FUNCTIONS OF AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE (i) It helps to hold various tissues together in any organ. (ii) It helps in the repair of body tissues after any injury. (iii) Histocytes (amoeboid cells) of this tissue engulf foreign particles and protect against diseases. These are also known as macrophages. (iv) Mast cells in the tissue are concerned with allergic and inflammatory reactions. (v) It binds skin with the underlying tissues.
ADIPOSE TISSUE It consists of adipose cells (Adipocytes) filled with fat globules in loose connective tissue. Each adipose cell stores a large droplet of fat which is used to provide energy. Adipose tissue pads and insulates the animal body. Location: It is found in the subcutaneous layer below the skin, around the heart,brain and below the eye balls, blubber of whales & elephants, hump of camel, etc. It is a prominent component of skin of mammals living in polar regions.
FUNCTIONS OF ADIPOSE TISSUE (i) It acts as insulator and prevents loss of heat from the body. (ii) It helps in the storage of food in the form of fats. (iii) It provides body contours (shapes). (iv) It forms cushion like shock-absorbing structures below the vital organs such as heart, kidney, eye balls etc.
FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUES (a) White fibrous connective tissue The matrix of this tissue contains abundant white fibres forming layers or bundles making it inelastic. The white fibres are made up of collagen protein.Sheets of this tissue are found in the coverings of the bones, cartilages, kidneys etc.Bundles of this tissue called tendons, attach muscles to the bones.
FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUES (b) Yellow fibrous connective tissue This tissue is very elastic due to the presence of a network of very elastic yellow fibres in its matrix. The yellow fibres are made up of elastin protein. Sheets of this tissue are found in covering of the blood vessels. Bundles of this tissue are called ligaments that attach the bones to each other at the joints.
FLUID / VASCULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUES It is a special type of connective tissue which maintains link among different parts of the body. It receives materials from certain parts of the body and transports them to the other parts. It constitutes the transport system of animals. It consists of two basic components – blood and lymph.
BLOOD Blood is composed of blood cells present in liquid matrix called plasma.Blood is approximately 55 percent of plasma and 45 percent blood corpuscles.Plasma contains water, salts, sugars, lipids and amino acids. Blood corpuscles are of 3 types: (A) Red blood cells or Erythrocytes. (B) White blood cells or leucocytes (C) Platelets or thrombocytes (These are spindle-shaped non-nucleated cells numbering 200, 000 to 300,000 per mm3 of blood. They help in the clotting of blood).
BLOOD (A) RBC’s or Erythrocytes These are the most abundant corpuscles out of all the types and are about 5 million in one mm3 of blood. They are biconcave, nonnucleated, disc-like in mammals, whereas oval, biconvex and nucleated in fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds. They contain red-coloured respiratory pigment called haemoglobin that helps in the transportation of respiratory gases.
BLOOD (B) WBC’s or Leucocytes These are irregular, amoeboid, phagocytic cells with one to many lobed nucleus. These cells protect the body against diseases by engulfing bacteria and other foreign particles (phagocytosis) and are hence called ‘soldiers of the body’. They also provide resistance against diseases by producing proteinaceous substances called antibodies. Their number is about 6000-8000 per mm3 of blood. They are of five types : monocytes, lymphocytes, acidophils, basophils and neutrophils.
TYPES OF LEUCOCYTES Granulocytes In their cytoplasm granules are present which can be stained by specific dye.Nucleus is multilobed and lobes are interconnected by protoplasmic strand.Produced in Bone marrow – They are (i) Acidophils, (ii) Basophils (iii) Neutrophils
GRANULOCYTES (i) Acidophils/Eosinophils Amoeboid in shape. In their cytoplasm acidophilic granules are present which can be stained by acidic dye Eosin. Nucleus is bilobed. They protect body against allergy & parasitic infection.
GRANULOCYTES (ii) Basophils Amoeboid in shape. Smallest granulocytes. In their cytoplasm basophilic granules are present which can be stained with basic dye methylene blue. Nucleus is 3 lobed. 'S' shaped. Their main function is to secrete heparin, histamine & serotonin.
GRANULOCYTES (iii) Neutrophils Maximum in number.Amoeboidal in shape. In their cytoplasm granules can be stained by any dye (acidic, neutral, basic). Nucleus is multilobed. They can squeeze & comes out from the wall of blood capillaries in tissue. This phenomenon is called Diapedesis. Phagocytic in nature. Destroy bacteria & viruses by phagocytosis. Due to their smaller size & phagocytic nature they are called Micropolice man.
TYPES OF LEUCOCYTES (2) Agranulocytes Cytoplasm is clear & granular. Produced in bone marrow. They are of 2 types (i) Monocytes (ii) Lymphocytes
AGRANULOCYTES (i) Monocytes Largest Blood Corpuscles. Nucleus kidney shaped/bean shaped.Power of diapedesis is present. Active motile WBC. Phagocytic in nature. Destroy bacteria & viruses by phagocytosis so called Macropoliceman. Also called scavanger of blood because they engulf damaged or dead & minute bits of blood corpuscles.
AGRANULOCYTES (ii) Lymphocytes Amoeboid shape. Life span in blood - 5 - 7 days or less than 10 days but in connective tissue it may be month/year/whole life. Lymphocytes are of two types. A. T – LYMPHOCYTES Produced in bone marrow but mature in thymus gland. B. B – LYMPHOCYTES Produced in bone marrow and mature in bone marrow. Its function is to produce, synthesize & transport antibodies.
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD (i) It transports nutrients, hormones and vitamins to the tissues and carries excretory products from the tissues to the excretory organs. (ii) The RBC's of blood helps in the transport of respiratory gases,(oxygen & CO2). (iii) The WBCs fight with diseases by producing antibodies and engulfing the germs (antigens). (iv) Blood platelets help in the clotting of blood. (v) Blood helps in thermoregulation, water balance and maintenance of pH of body.
LYMPH Lymph is actually filtered blood which is similar to blood in composition except that it is devoid of RBC, platelets and some blood protein. WBC are present in abundance in lymph. Due to the absence of RBC(haemoglobin), lymph is colourless.
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH (i) It acts as a "middle man" for exchange of various material between blood and tissue. (ii) Helps in the transportation of fat absorbed from intestine to the venous blood. (iii) Keeps the tissues and organs of the body moist. (iv) Lymphatic organs (lymph nodes, spleen) produce lymphocytes which in turn produce antibodies to strengthen the immune system of the body.
SKELETAL CONNECTIVE TISSUES Bone- It is a rigid connective tissue that has a matrix of collagen fibres embedded in calcium and phosphorous compounds, giving it greater rigidity and strength. It is the hardest connective tissue that forms the skeleton of vertebrates. Bone is surrounded by a thick sheath called periosteum. Like other connective tissues it is also made of matrix and cells. The matrix of bone is very hard because of the presence of salts such as calcium phosphate( maximum invertebrate bone), CaCO3, etc. and a protein
BONE The long bones are usually hollow containing a cavity called marrow cavity. It is full of bone marrow. In the solid matrix are present longitudinal canals called haversian canals, which are interconnected by transverse Volkmann’s canal. The matrix is present in the form of layers called lamellae. These lamellae are present in the form of concentric rings around the marrow cavity and around the canals. In these lamellae are present spaces called lacunae. The lacunae have fine channels called canaliculi. The lacunae contain bone forming cells osteocytes. Another type of bone-forming cells called osteoblasts are present in the form of two layers, one outer and the other inner to matrix. Growth of bone is bidirectional.
FUNCTIONS OF BONE (i) It provides support for muscle attachment. (ii) It protects the internal organs from mechanical injury. (iii) It serves as a reservoir for calcium. ➢ Immature bone cells (Osteoblast), mature bone cells (Osteocytes), Immature cartilage cells (Chondroblast), mature cartilage cells (Chondrocytes). Bone destroying cells (Osteoclast), cartilage destroying cells (chondroclast)
CARTILAGE It is a connective tissue with an abundant number of collagen fibres in a rubbery matrix. The matrix is made up of proteins and sugars. It is both strong and flexible but softer than bone. It forms the embryonic skeleton of vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks and rays. It also occurs in the human body in the ear pinna, tip of the nose, trachea, larynx and surrounding ends of joints such as knees.
MUSCULAR TISSUE
MUSCULAR TISSUE Muscular tissue is distinguished from other tissues by its unique ability to contract & relax and thereby perform mechanical work. It is responsible for movement of body organs and locomotion of body.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF MUSCULAR TISSUE The structural unit of muscle tissue is the muscle cells which because of its elongated shape is also called muscle fibre. The contractility is due to the presence of contractile proteins (Actin & Myosin) in the muscle fibre. The plasma membrane of muscle cells is called sarcolemma and endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cell is called sarcoplasmic reticulum.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULAR TISSUE (i) It supports the bones and other organs of the body. (ii) Muscles help in peristalsis of gut, heart beat, etc. (iii) Muscles cause movements of body parts and locomotion of the animals. (iv) Facial expression also depends on muscles. (v) Contraction of muscles causes birth of a baby.
Types of Muscle tissue
TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUE The nervous tissue, contains densely packed cells called nerve cells or neurons, is present in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The neurons are specialised for conduction of nerve impulses. They receive stimuli from within or outside the body and conduct impulses (signals) which travel from one neuron to another neuron.
STRUCTURE OF NEURON Each neuron has following 2 parts : (i) Cyton or cell body: Contains a central nucleus and cytoplasm with characteristic deeply stained particles called Nissl's granules (i.e. clumps of ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum). (ii) Cell Processes (a) Dendrites (b) Axon
STRUCTURE OF NEURON (ii) Cell Processes (a) Dendrites: These may be one to many, generally short and branched cytoplasmic processes. Dendrites are afferent processes because they receive impulse from receptor or other neuron and bring it to cyton. (b) Axon: It is single generally long efferent process which conducts impulse away from cyton to other neuron. Longest cell in body is neuron because axon can be more than one metre long. Axon has uniform thickness, but it has terminal thin branches called telodendria. Terminal end buttons or synaptic knobs occur at the end of telodendria.
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