PIGS PRODUCTION.pdf

PIGS PRODUCTION.pdf

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  SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OFAGRICULTURE FoA-DASP MODULE: AS 405 ANIMAL PRODUCTION II PIG PRODUCTION COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. Dyness Muze MGHENI
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  1 THE PIGINDUSTRY 1.1 Introduction- Overview  To note that the pig industry is very old in developed countries  Literature available as early as 1523 by Fitzherbert  World wide the pig population has been increasing with human population.  The pig industry has played a number of roles in the lives of people from ancient times.  These includes i) Treading corn in ancient Egypt ii) Swearing an oath on pig or piglet in Roman armies iii) Land preparation iv) Pointers and retrievers for illicit hunting v) Provision of meat and lard  As the human population increased rapidly in the Middle Ages, number of pigs increased so fast that they became a nuisance in the streets.  A law was to be made that “He who shall wish to feed a pig must feed it in his house”.
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   A pigfound wondering could be killed, although there was a provision that the owner could buy it back.  Importance of the pig has been described in history books as: i) a save all ii) universal consumer iii) universally produced iv) scavengers of the medieval village and for general use and consumption v) pig industry has been described as the most important objects of all English agriculture in the 13th Century and for many of the century to come. vi) Fitzherbert (1523) was of the opinion that the pig population of the country was too small than it should be and so he wrote “Now, thou husband that hath both horses and mares, beasts and sheep, it was necessary that both swine, bees, sleep he wake he, he may thrive….then see how many swine thou art be able to keep.”  The world population has since then increased tremendously to over 800 mill. pigs (FAO 1994).
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   Most importantis the radical change in management systems which have enabled developed countries of Europe as well as South East Asia to derive more meat from pigs than other livestock.  In Africa, meat production comes mainly from ruminants, having 21 mill. compared to 192 mill. cattle (FAO 1994).  Thus in Africa, TZ being included the pig industry plays a minor role except in some small communities.  In TZ pig population vary from 900-1mill. compared with cattle population of over 19 mill.
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  1.2 Origin ofthe pig Breeds origin  The modern domesticated pig is known as Sus scrofa domesticus or simply Sus domesticus.  It is believed to have descended from the wild boar of Southern Europe (Sus scrofa) and those of Asia, and Malayan pigs possibly the collared pig (Sus vittatus)  Other breeds were the wart hog (Sus aethiopicus) and the African wild pig (Sus procus) and the red river hog of Africa (Sus africcnus).  Zoologically, the pig is a member of the order Ungulata, through the sub-order Artiodactyla and belongs to the same family Suidae as the domestic pig.  The present day breeds are no doubt a result of varying degrees of crossing between the parents stock and their offsprings.
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  Evolution of themanagement systems  Over a period of 3-4 decades the typical system of raising pigs has evolved from what could be termed “natural conditions” into highly specialised and sophisticated confinement facilities.  While the wild pig is vigorous, active and aggressive, the domesticated pig is a different creature, content largely to feed and sleep, inclined to vicious only if disturbed although it is inquisitive. How did it happen?  Through breeding and selection based on progeny testing, performance testing  Aiming at developing an efficient pig  The pig has been reshaped to fit into the modern production systems.  The emphasis has been on producing an animal which do not become excessively fat under conditions of being permanently housed, and which will respond to controlled levels of feed intake by production of muscles and little fat.
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  1.3 Factors favourablefor pig production/Advantages 1.High feed conversion efficiency (1 kg carcass from 5 feed is possible). 2.Prolificacy (Farrowing 6 – 14 piglets twice per year). 3.Short reproductive cycle (Thus many –up to 16 or more piglets raised per sow per year). 4.High dressing percentage (65 % to 80 % and also small proportion of bone, hence high % of edible meat in carcass). 5.Pork is nutritious and energetic due to high fat content and slightly low water content. 6. Efficient converters of waste and by- products into pork. Pigs can utilize a variety of by-products unsuitable for human consumption. 7.High capacity to consume feed in proportion to their weights and hence can make more rapid gains proportion to their live weights than calves or lambs. 8.Hardy and adapt well to various climatic conditions without impairing the reproduction or performance. 9.Flexibility in housing 10. No competition with crop for land.
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  11. Easy tobreed your own pigs. 1.4 Factors limiting pig production 1. Shortage/high price of concentrates. Pigs cannot perform well entirely on roughages or bulky feeds. 2. In most cases pigs compete with man and other non-ruminants animals and even ruminants for food. 3. Diseases and parasites (Zoonotic diseases and parasites e.g. Porcine cysticercosis, taeniosis).For more information Read (Kimbi et al., 2010). 4. Stench and drudgery 5. Fast inbreeding 6. Religious and social taboos 7. Pork has to compete with other meat which can sometimes be produced at low cost  need to formulate least cost feeds (>70 % of the total cost is from food)  try to reduce labour and overhead costs  look for good markets  Add value to the product by processing and sell to niche markets (supermarkets, tourist hotels, restaurants and mining areas).
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  2. BREEDS OFPIGS AND PIG BREEDING 2.1 Breeds 1. Large White/Yorkshire Origin: Yorkshire – England Characteristics:  White body, erect ears, face is dished, heavy and deep shoulders  Susceptible to sun burn  Large and fast growing litters  Although docile, docile by virtue of its size, it‫׳‬s apt to behave like a local rhinoceros.  Good for bacon production  Relatively hardy
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  2. Landrace Origin: Denmark Characteristics:  Whitelong body, droopy/floppy ears, straight long snout, fine fore quarters  Produces very lean meat  Excellent for bacon  Sometimes succumb to stress and may require high standard of management. 3. Saddleback Origin: SW England (Essex and Wessex) Characteristics:  Black body with a white saddle / belt across the shoulders and fore legs, long straight face, droopy ears.  Good mothering ability  Good for outdoor conditions
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  4. Hampshire Origin: USA Characteristics:  Blackbody with a white belt across the shoulders, short snout, thick erect ears.  Good for outdoor conditions. 5. Other breeds of pigs are:  Duroc  Poland China  Berkshire  Pietran  Tamworth  Lacombe  Hereford  Chester White  Spotted pigs  Mangalitza  Criollo  Ashanti (China)  Bakosi (Cameroon) Reading Assignment
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  Read about thesebreeds and make notes on their origin and characteristics. 2.2 Pig breeding Traits of economic importance in pigs 1. Sow productivity. That is total litter weight at weaning. This is an indication of the milking and mothering ability of the sow and vigour and growth rate of the pigs. Large litters are not advantageous if a sow is poor mother or piglets are too weak. 2. Rate and efficiency of gain 3. Carcass desirability- leanness  Systems of breeding which can be used in pigs include:  Pure breeding  Inbreeding  Crossbreeding  Outcrossing and line breeding  All these can be generalised as:  Inbreeding and
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   Crossbreeding systems What happens when these two systems are applied in pigs? TRAITS INBREEDING CROSSBREEDING 1.General performance  Decline  Improved 2. Fertility  Improved  Decline 3. Litter size  Decreased  Increases 4. Mortality  Increases  Decreases  Libido  Low  High  Sexual maturity  Delayed  Improved  Mature size  Reduced  Increased  Growth rate  Reduced  Improved  Effects of recessive genes  Uncovered  Masked  Traits with low heritability like reproductive traits (e.g. litter size and vigour can be improved by crossbreeding)  Whereas, traits with high heritability like carcass (body length, mature body size, leanness can be improved by selection).
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  2.3 The PigCycle Cycle specification Duration 1. Length of oestrus 21 (19 – 23) days 2. Duration of heat 2- 3 days 3. Time of ovulation after onset of oestrus 35 hrs 4. Life of sperm in the female genitalia 24 – 40 hrs 5. Life span of eggs < 24 hrs 6. Age at puberty 6- 8 months 7. Age at first service 8 months 8. Gestation period 114 days 9. Suckling period 8 weeks (variable) 10. Reproductive longevity 4 – 8 years 11. Longevity 12 – 15 years
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  The following areproduction and productivity targets which can be achieved in the tropics: 1. Pigs farrowed per litter 9 2. Pigs weaned per litter 7 3. Pigs weaned per sow per year 14 4. Litters per sow per year 2 5. Weaning wt. (kg) at 8 weeks 10- 12 6. Litter wt. at weaning (kg) > 70 7. Weaning service interval (days) 5 – 10 8. Age at first service (months) 8 – 9 9. Growth rate (kg/day) 0.5 10. Age at slaughter at 90 kg (months) 6 – 7 Caution: In order to achieve these more attention should be focused on:  Creep feeding  Care at farrowing and thereafter  Mating procedures and  Feeding of growing pigs
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  3. MANAGEMENT OFYOUNG PIGS. 3.1 Factors influencing performance of suckling pig. 1.Teat position and social rank. Anterior teats produce more milk than posterior teats. 2.Number of teats versus little size 3.Order in birth 4.Milk ability of the sow which in turn depends on: i) Age. Milk yield increases up to the 4-6th parity, then decline. ii) Litter size. The larger the litter size the more the milk, but the less milk per piglet. iii) Body condition and nutritional level before and during lactation 5.Creep feeding 6.Stress (heat, lack of water, fighting, poor mothering ability of the sow)
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  3.2 Colostrum  Thebaby pig is born with little or no antibodies and has to suckle the mother to acquire immunity from the immunoglobulins in the colostrum or first milk.  Functions of colostrum: i) Provision of passive immunity- lasts for 3 days ii) Provision of nutrients –excellent source of Vitamin A, C, and E.  Since the permeability of intestine to protein responsible for immunity is reduced drastically (gut closure) with time after birth, it is essential that piglets suckle immediately after birth.  For 24 – 36 hrs after birth the pigs readily absorbs intact protein unchanged through gut wall.  The general health and survival of the newborn pig depends on this absorption which not only provides antibodies but is also accompanied by rapid rise in serum proteins and an increase in blood volume.
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   The compositionof the colostrum changes rapidly until after one week it resembles normal milk. Table1. Composition of sow’s milk/colostrum Hrs/days after birth % fat %Protein % Lactose 5 hrs 4.5 15.0 3.0 2 days 9.5 8.0 4.5 45 days 7.5 7.0 5.5 Digestion in the young pig (AS 104) From birth until about the age of five weeks the concentration and activity of many digestive secretions in the young pig are different from those in the adult animal.  During the first few days after birth the intestine is permeable to native proteins.  In the young pig, as in other farm animals, this is essential for the transfer of -
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  globulins (antibodies) viathe mother's milk to the newborn animal.  The ability of the young pig to absorb these proteins declines rapidly and is low by 24 hours post partum. Reasons for this condition i) Proteins digested differently. The piglet stomach initially produces only a limited amount of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen, but it does secrete chymosin. This operates at pH 3.5 to break the peptide bonds between phenylalanine and methionine in casein. It clots milk, thereby avoiding flooding the small intestine with nutrients. As the piglet develops, pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid secretion increases. ii) CHOs are also digested differently in young pig. Table.2 shows the activity of some of the important carbohydrates in the young pig.
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  Table 2 Weightof disaccharides hydrolysed per kg body weight per hour by small intestine enzyme in young pigs Lactose (g) Sucrose (g) Maltose (g) Newborn 5.9 0.06 0.3 Five weeks 0.8 1.3 2.5 Table 2 indicates that there is variation in the enzymes activity:  The activity of lactase is high at birth and reaches a maximum in the first week of life and then slowly declines over the third or fourth week.  Maltase activity increases from the fourth week,  Sucrase reaches a constant level
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  between weeks 4and 8.  -Amylase activity is present at birth but remains low until about four weeks of age. Significance of enzyme activity in rearing of piglets: i) Early weaning (14 days of age) These differences in enzyme activities are of special significance where piglets are reared on early weaning diets. If young pigs are weaned at 14 days of age, their diet, especially regarding the types of carbohydrates, should be different from that for animals weaned later. Early weaning mixtures usually include a high proportion of dried milk products containing lactose.
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  ii) Late weaning(3-4 weeks) For later weaning at 3 - 4 weeks cooked cereals are included in the diet since raw starch is incompletely digested in the SI and passes to the large intestine, where it is fermented by bacteria, causing diarrhoea. 3.3 Management Requirements of Piglets 1. Adequate warm environment to conserve scarce energy 2. Adequate and constant nutrition (energy, protein, vitamin, minerals and water). Access to suckling 3. Safety from overlying by the sow (mother)
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  3.4 Operation duringthe first week 3.4.1 Day 1 (1st Day) i) Help the piglets to find the teats ii) Assist weak piglets. They can be held at the teats to avoid competition or given 10 cc of 20 % solution of glucose by intra-peritoneal injection or 10 – 20 cc cow colostrums by syringe or stomach tube iii) Novel (umbilical cord) should be tied off to prevent loss of blood (cut in such a way that 3 to 5 cm remain and this portion dipped into a tincture of iodine to avoid navel infection...”novel ill” iv) Keep piglets warm to avoid hypothermia and hypoglycaemia. Piglets are born with only 1% fat in the body (compare with 16 % in humans). They are therefore highly susceptible to low temperature.
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  3.4.2 Other operationsduring 1st Week 1. Clipping/cutting needle teeth or “wolf” teeth (4 canine teeth) two on each jaw i) to prevent injury and infection of the sow's udder, ii) prevent injury to piglets during encounters (when fight or play among themselves), iii) make handling easy. 2. Identification  Identification should be done on the first days to establish identity by using: i) ear notching ii) ear tattooing numbers iii) ear tagging 3. Iron supply i) Iron dextran injection (more dependable method ii) Ferrous sulphate solution (spraying or swabbing the sow’s udder with the solution daily until the piglets starts to eat creep feed. iii) Commercial source of iron in a form of pills or pastes to be administered individually are also available iv) Place clean red soil in the pen
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  v) Let thesow farrow in a non-concrete (earth) pen Why iron supplements?  It is administered to prevent anaemia. The new born pig has only a limited reserve of iron for haemoglobin synthesis owing to inefficient placental transfer of iron to the foetus. The new born pig contains only about 50 mg of iron stored in the liver and the daily need is about 5 or 10 mg. Since the sow’s milk is also very low in iron, the suckling pig must be supplemented with iron to prevent anaemia.  Thus the amount to be supplemented should be 150 to 200 mg to meet the needs for iron until iron containing dry feeds is eaten in significant amount say about 3 weeks of age.
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  3.4.3 Operations after1st Week 1. Operation No. 1- Creep feeding  Due to inadequate milk supply  Even out differences in growth, avoid runts  Accustom piglets to solid foods so as to ease transition Important changes in the enzyme activity that occur in GIT of a young pig (AS 104):  Important changes in digestive enzymes as it grows  These enzyme changes affect the suitability of various carbohydrates and proteins for the baby pig during its early life.  The newly born pig has very little or no pepsin enzyme activity.  Pepsin activity increases gradually up to 7 weeks of age  Pancreatic amylase activity is very low at birth and increases gradually up to seven weeks of age.  Amylolytic activity (CHO digestion enzymes) is also very low at birth (negligible).
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   This increasesmarkedly during the first 5 weeks of age.  Lipolytic (fat digestion) activity is high at birth and remains high throughout.  Sucrase and maltase activity rise steadily from negligible levels at birth to significance levels in 1 – 2 weeks.  This is the reason why very young pigs cannot utilize sucrose but can utilise lactose.  The lack of sucrase in the newborn pig and the slow rate of increased production of enzymes accounts for danger of death among pigs fed a diet rich in sucrose (e.g. high molasses based diets).  Lactase (enzyme for milk sugar) activity is high at birth.  Lactose utilization decreases as the pig becomes older because the production of the enzyme lactase, which breaks down lactose decreases reaching minimum levels at 4 – 5 weeks of age.  The ability of the baby pig to utilize lactose is reduced rapidly with age.  After 4 weeks it reaches very low levels while ability to utilize feed protein increases in the opposite direction.
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   Thus trypsin,pancreatic amylase, pepsin increase and at the 4th week they persist in high levels.  The normal pattern of enzyme is suitable for milk digestion up to 21 – 28 days (3 to 4 weeks) because the sow's milk yield increases up to maximum quantity at this time.  There after supplementary food is necessary and the need arises for the piglets to be able to digest other raw material.  The change therefore takes place from a predominantly milk proteins {(Rennin or chymosin) which resemble pepsin in activity} and sugars (lactase) and milk fats (lipase) digestion enzymes towards other proteins (proteolytic enzymes) and starch (amylose) digestion enzymes.  Usually after 3 – 4 weeks milk is no longer adequate and after 8 – 9 weeks milk production is negligible.  Thus creep feed should be introduced after the second week.  The creep feed should be palatable, highly digestible and nutritious and not dusty.
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  2. Operation No.2-Castration  Castration should be done early in life, preferably the first 2 weeks of life. Benefits and/or advantages of castration Use a clean scalpel or sharp knife + disinfectant  Boar odour- meat from mature boars has objectionable odour when cooked. This is produced by a fat soluble substance: 5 androst – 16 –ene –one present in the flesh and stored in the preputial gland.  Prevent unplanned matings 3. Operation No. 3- Weaning strategies  Remove sow and leave the piglets in the pen at least for week  Avoid mixing with other litters  Continue with the palatable creep feed  Feed frequently and in small amounts  Avoid scours.  Avoid abrupt weaning-in many piggeries weaning is abrupt and affect the pig both socially and nutritionally. Having established a close relationship with the sow and dominance order within the litter often based on teat position, the
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  weaned pig findsitself completely disoriented when removed from the sow. Additional weaning strategies  Pigs from several litters are often regrouped by size.  The group of pigs will normally spend the first few days adjusting to these changes during which time very little feed is consumed.  This courses an additional stress, superimposed on an already difficult period in terms of the digestive physiology of the pig.  The pig's digestive system has been programmed to cope with liquid milk until weaning and has then to make a transition quite rapidly to digest solid food (if creep feed was not provided).  By the 3rd of 4th day after weaning the pigs have normally adjusted to the new environment and food intake increases drastically.  This sudden intake of food causes much undigested food to pass to the lower gut resulting in an imbalance of the microbial population and consequently a scour problem.
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   These changesin social grouping, housing and diet are occurring when the pig's immunity is at its lowest.  Remember that the new born piglet has no protective immunity at birth and it is only after its first suckle and intake that passive immunity is imparted to it.  This lasts for about 10 – 14 days  Active immunity to disease organisms encountered in the farrowing pen does not build up until 21 – 24 days of age.  Ability to resist a disease challenge is therefore at its lowest during the period when the disease causing organism will invariably result in symptoms of that disease.  Likewise any change in the management system that may result in a change of balance in the normal gut micro organism population will probably result in the development of scour.  This problem will be intensified if disease organism such as E. coli is present in significant numbers in the gut. Reached here on 13/12/2010…………………………
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  WHY SHOULD WEANERSBE FED FREQUENTLY IN SMALL AMOUNTS a). The volume of the gut increases with live weight as well as with the amount of supplementary feed consumed.
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   The largerthe gut the more food that can be consumed and the greater the potential for more rapid growth.  The amount consumed depends also on the rate at which the gut is emptied and vice versa.  When the pig eats only once or twice per day, it consumes a large quantity of food in a short time.
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   This resultin the stomach being emptying large mass of semi-digested food into the upper small intestine, which causes a heavy loading in digestive capacity of the gut.  This may result in the food passing along the tract too fast to be completely absorbed and hence supplies a nutrient source for the micro organisms lower down the intestinal tract.  When a similar amount of feed is consumed in small amounts at more frequent intervals, the stomach empties intermittently which is more gentle on the digestive tract and allows the enzymes more time to act on the substrate.  There is less likelihood of undigested nutrients reaching the large intestine for proliferation of micro organisms living there. b). The degree of acidity (pH) in the digestive tract varies along the length of the tract, generally being very acidic (pH of 2 - 3) in the stomach and near neutral (pH of 6 - 7) in the other parts.  The low pH (pepsin have optimum activity at two different pH levels (2.0 and 3.5) of the stomach is due to HCL secretion of the stomach on the first day of life.
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  New findings Although thelarge intestine is recognised as the site of major microbial fermentation, there is a microbial population in the small intestine. Recent work with sugar beet pulp given to pigs fitted with ileal cannulae showed that a large proportion (47 per cent) of the neutral detergent fibre fraction was digested prior to the terminal ileum. This breakdown is the result of microbial activity in the stomach and small intestine and acid hydrolysis of some of the fibre fractions. OTHER ADVANTAGES OF ACID CONDITION  HCL is known to be higher in weaners (weaned pigs) than at any other time of its life and this initially allows ingested bacteria to pass through the stomach unharmed and to multiply in the lower intestine.  This establishes the population of the micro organism along the GIT (flora and fauna) and symbiotic micro organisms for hind gut fermentation.  With normal diets there is always a certain amount of
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  material which isresistant to the action of the enzymes secreted into the alimentary canal.  The large intestine plays an important role in the retrieval of nutrients, electrolytes and water in the digesta.  The lower pH of the stomach after this time prevents multiplication of any bacteria that are consumed except Lactobacilli which proliferate in the stomach and small intestine but do not harm the piglet.  Whenever the pH of the stomach contents rises, bacteria whose multiplication would normally be limited are allowed to increase in number and pass on through the stomach to the intestine.  However, the barrier of entry to the potential disease- causing organisms is lowered.  In practice, when the pig is fed the pH of the stomach will initially rise towards the pH of the food i.e. about 6.0 to 6.5.  The stomach then secrets HCL and over the period that the food remains in the stomach the pH will slowly fall towards pH 2 to 3.  Whenever the diet is eaten in large quantities at infrequent intervals, the pH of the stomach will tend to remain higher than if the food was consumed little and often.  This is because the food will buffer the pH of the stomach to a higher value and the HCL produced will not be able to adequately permeate the large food mass. The overall effect
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  of this isthat the pH of the stomach does not fall as low as it should resulting to low enzyme activity. c) Another important facet of stomach pH is its effect on the functional ability of the protein digesting enzymes.  Protein digestion starts through the action of the protein digesting enzymes.  Digestion of protein starts through the action of the pepsin in the acid environment of the stomach.  It is important that the acidity falls below pH of 4 otherwise this enzyme will not function.  Any food passing the stomach before the pH has fallen to this level will not have its protein completely digested in the small intestine. What is the fate of such foods?  This site is post absorption and nutrients from hind gut fermentation will not be absorbed to the system  This is likely to cause an increase in the microbial population in the lower gut and a disturbance in the normal distribution of bacterial types such as E. coli will become prevalent and consequently may lead to development of a scour condition.
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  4. MANAGEMENT OFGROWING PIGS GROWTH RATES  Piglet’s birth weight is between 0.6 and 1.4 kg depending upon breeds, litter size and parity.  Most breeds have an average of 1.2 kg for most productive genotype.  After 6-7 months live-weight will have increased to 100 kg which represents approximately an 80- folds increase in weight.  Pigs therefore have a rapid growth rate; this explains their high nutrient requirements and the reason why feeding must be optimal. (graph1)  The rate of growth is not constant (graph 2)  In absolute terms daily live-wt. gains increase up to 100 kg for European breeds are of the order: i) 400g following weaning ii) 500g at 30 kg iii) >600 g up to 40 kg iv) 700g between 60 and 70 kg after which they fall progressively. (graph 3)
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   If weightgain is related to live weight gain i.e the relative GR, it is evidence that this declines from birth (graph 4)  As illustrated in the graphs shown it indicates that at 20 kg LWt. the critical period has been passed.  The protein content of the diet can be reduced  It should be born in mind that although the amount of feed required per 100 kg gain during each period of growth steadily increases, the feed conversion and growth rate cannot be maximized until a weight of about 90 – 100 kg is reached.  Average daily gain (ADG) tends to increase from birth to puberty (6 months) and then decreases until maturity (graph 3).  Maximum slaughter weight for most pigs lies in the range of 65 – 110 kg live weight.
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  Development of bodytissue  At birth the pig has a relatively large head in relation to the rest of the body and its development is most pronounced during gestation.  This proportion diminishes progressively.  As the pig grows the hind quarters form a square, with height being equal to length (graph 5)  As the pig grows much older other tissues like muscle and fat are deposited to the body at different proportions (Table 3) Table 3: Development of body composition in pigs. LWt. Body composition (%) (kg) DM CP Fat Ash Skeleton Muscle Fat tissues Birth 20 14 1 4 18 46 2 20 40 14 12 3 14 45 19 50 45 13 16 28 12 44 25 90 50 13 28 25 10 43 32 150 60 11 45 20 8 40 50
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   The olderthe pig the more the tendency to lay down fat in its carcass.  Restricting the feed intake can control this to some extent.  Fat deposition require more dietary energy than other body components and consequently give a lower liveweight gain per unit of food intake (lower feed efficiency).  The higher the daily gain or the lower the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of a group of fattening pigs the greater the profitability. (graphs 5 and 6) Development of tissues and Development of muscle tissues with LWt. Gain)  Table 4. Body composition as influenced by sex Sex Bone Muscle Fat tissue Male1 100 100 100 Castrated male 91 98 146 Female 96 97 137 Castrated female 87 89 151 1 Characteristics of the male are taken as a base ( =100)
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  4.1 Growing pigrequire the following conditions 1. Sufficient space to allow the pigs to select a dunging corner and a lying area. Group the pigs into different weight and maintain uniformity in weight in each pen. The maximum number of pigs in each pen should preferably not exceed 20. Pigs establish a stable social society through establishment of a linear type dominance hierarchy which follows after encounters. One pig become dominant to all others and the last one becomes submissive to all. This has been described up to 18 animals. 2. Clean pens. The pens and troughs should be cleaned thoroughly everyday. 3. Fresh and clean water all the time 4. Routine and regular feeding. Twice per day feeding is preferred to once per day. 5. Least stress. Frequent mixing should be avoided. Avoid moving one or a few pigs to pen occupied by other pigs. If a mistake was made in mixing the pigs/litters at an early age such that they are homogenous in a pen it be advisable to maintain the groups
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  because if theyare sorted out afresh, the fighting which will resume may create serious stress and even death. 6. Should it be necessary to reallocate the pigs into pens the following strategies should be done: i) Try as much as possible to equalize the number from each pen and mix them in a neutral pen. ii) Wash the pigs with used engine oil iii) Place straw, grass or hay inside the pens to keep the pigs busy. iv) Offer plenty of food.
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  4.2 Factors affectingperformance of fattening pigs 1. Sex:  Sex has little effect on growth rate until puberty.  Thereafter males with higher body size have slightly greater growth rate and other trends being: i) The FCR (Entire males>Female>Castrates) ii) The ADG (Entire males>Female and Castrates restricted) 2. Age of the pig (ADG and FCR vs age) (graph 2) 3. Nutrition: details will be given during feed requirements and feed formulation 4. Breeds: Genetic potential of the pig. There are very significant difference
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  between well bredbreeds and local breeds. Local breeds have low GR than well bred breeds. ADG is rarely 500g, whereas Lwt. of 100 kg cannot be achieved until 10 months of age for the local breeds. These differences are therefore controlled by genetic factors. Breeds of high genetic potential for GR growing faster than those of low genetic potential. 5. Environmental conditions (e.g. temperate vs tropical conditions) 6. Dominance order and space/pig Feeds and feeding of growing pigs  Feeds for pigs will be given extra wt later but feeding regime is given in table 4.  Restrict feeding is given in Table 4. Growing pigs for slaughter, however, require large amounts of energy and protein. For this reason it is a common practice to feed them ad libitum .
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  Table 4: Feedingscale of pigs Age (Weeks) LWt (kg) Daily feed allowance (kg) Up to 10 Up to 20 1.0 11 25 1.2 12-13 30 1.5 14 35 1.7 15 40 1.9 16 45 2.1 17 50 2.3 18 55 2.4 19 60 2.5 20 65 2.6 21 70 2.7 22 75 2.8 23 80 2.9 24 85 3.0 25 90 3.1 30 95 3.2 31 100 3.3
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  5. MANAGEMENT OF BREEDINGHERD 5.1 Selection of the breeding herd  Animals for breeding should be selected early 1. The breeding boar should have the following characteristics: a) No hereditary diseases in all its pedigree. b) Its maternal parent should have high fecundity, good mothering ability, large litters, high growth rate and high feed conversion efficiency. c) No any other abnormality d) Long body, good body conformation with good muscling properties. e) During growing the breeding boar should score a high FCE and high growth rate.
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  2. The breedinggilt/sow should have the following characteristics: a) No hereditary diseases or abnormalities in all its pedigree. b) Long body, good body conformation with high proportion of hindquarters that is sturdy and firm feet. c) During growing, the gilt should display a high FCE and high growth rate. d) At least 12 teats, evenly distributed and lateral distance between equivalent pair of teats should not be excessive. 3. Puberty and breeding age: Puberty is reached at 6 – 7 months. The normal practice is to breed the gilt so that it farrows at the age of one year. 5.2 Management practices 5.2.1 Feeding  Feed 2-3 kg per day to sows/gilts/boars.  Feed should be adequate in minerals and vitamins  Avoid over feeding  Provide clean and fresh water all the time  Flush sows in poor condition
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  5.2.2 Exercise  Provideenough space for plenty of exercise  Under hot environment water for wallowing may be necessary. 5.2.3 Signs of heat  Enlarged and red vulva  Restlessness  Frequent urination  Occasional loud grunting  Occasionally white mucus discharge from the vagina  Mounting (early oestrus) and being mounted (standing heat) 5.3 Management of boars 5.3.1 Sows to boar ratio  The Sows: Boar ratio is 15 -20:1 for a young boar  The Sows: Boar ratio is 25 -30:1 for a mature boar  Maximum number of services per boar (see plan in Table 5).
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  Table 5: Planfor maximum number of services per boar Maximum number of services per boar Per day Per week Per month Mature boar (>15 months) 3 12 40 Young boar (<15 months) 2 8 25 5.3.2 Mating It is important to follow a breeding calendar to be able to obtain optimal conception rates in a piggery unit. Observe the following:  Oestrus cycle is about 21 days. After mating check for return to heat after 3 weeks  Heat period lasts for 40 – 60 hrs.  Mate the animal twice at 24 hrs interval. The first mating should be preferably be 12 hrs after onset of signs of heat  Gestation period is about 114 days
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   Mating mustbe supervised and recorded. Copulation takes up to 25 minutes (average 7 minutes). Up to 500 ml of semen is passed into the uterus.  Order of ejaculation v) Stage 1: gives watery fluid with tapioca like pellets (1 – 5 min.). This forms 5- 20 % of the ejaculate which is a gelatinous material from the Cowper's gland. vi) Stage 2: give sperm - rich fraction (2 – 5 min.). This is whitish uniform fluid constituting 30 – 50 % of the ejaculate vii) Stage 3: give sperm – poor fraction (3 – 8 min.). This is gelatinous material plus some clear fluid which forms 40 – 60 % of the ejaculate. 5.3.3 Oestrus length  Although oestrous lasts for about 2 – 2.5 days, gilts tend to remain on heat for only one day  About 12 – 18 ova are released from the ovary 26 – 36 hrs after the onset of heat  This release of ova usually occurs at the beginning of the 24 hr period of a full heat
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  during which thesow will stand quietly (Man-riding –on – rump test).  Normally most of the ova released will be fertilised and become implanted, but there is often a 40 % embryonic mortality. 5.4 Parturition 5.4.1 Routine observations  Farrowing time is the most critical time for piglet survival.  Major losses of piglets occur at this time due to poor mothering ability of the sow and bad husbandry.  The following preparations are necessary i) Prepare the farrowing pen/crate. Wash and disinfect ii) Place fresh bedding material (e.g. wood shavings, saw dust, rice husks) iii) Prepare the sow (deworm it one week before, wash it with acaricide or use engine oil and place the sow in the farrowing pen)
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  iv) In thefarrowing pen (farrowing crate) should be:  Guard rails  Creep area/box /brooder with infrared lamp  Creep feed 2 weeks later 5.4.1 Signs of parturition  Extreme nervousness and uneasiness (restlessness)  Enlarged and sometimes reddened vulva  Protrusion of the mammary tissue and the abdomen  Possible mucus discharge  Milk in teats (24 hrs prepartum)  Frequent urination Practical issues  Supervise the farrowing sow, if too nervous remove the piglets and reintroduce after complete farrowing.  Help the piglets to find a teat  You may be forced to even up litters because of: i) In case of orphan pigs ii) Large differences in litter size
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  iii) Sow producesno milk at all due to disease condition WHAT TO DO!  Remove the adopting sow from the pen  Mix the piglets and let them run together for some minutes.  It would be advisable to smear the piglets with the after birth liquid of the adopting sow.  Watch so that if they are not accepted they should be removed and tried on other sows.  If everything fails raise them on cows milk (warm and feed 5 times per day) 5.5 Feeding the lactating sow  Adequate feeding is essential for rich milk production  On the first day feed nothing but plenty of water  On 2nd to 7th day raise feed a small amount of food and raise gradually up to 6 kg per day  After first week feed ad libitum if litter size is more than 6 or use the formula 3 + 1/3 kg per piglet
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  For example ifyou have 12 piglets 1/3 kg per piglet = 4 kg Therefore the sow will get 3 + 4kg = 7 kg per day. 5.6 Weaning  Reduce feed gradually to 2 kg  Remove the sow and leave the piglets  In practical terms, it is the total intake of feed in complete reproduction cycle that is crucial, and the distribution of feed between pregnancy and lactation is of less importance.  However, surplus energy consumed by the sow is deposited by the pig as fat can be mobilised for production purposes in times of energy shortage.  Deposition and mobilisation cycles are theoretically inefficient since each phase requires energy to effect the chemical changes involved  However, milk production efficiency in the pig is rich and thus it is important to liberally feed the lactating sow while restricting the pregnant sow. Reached here..................20/12/2010
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  6 PIG NUTRITION In most commercial piggeries, over 70 % of the cost of production goes to feeding.  It is imperative to understand the nutrient requirements of pigs and formulate rations which will be efficiently utilized while at the same time being cost effective.  One has to develop appropriate feeding strategy for maximum utilization and minimum (least) waste. Nutrient requirements of pigs  To be able to formulate appropriate ration of pigs it is important to know their nutrients requirements  Why are pigs more prone to nutritional deficiencies than other farm animals? i) Pigs consume more concentrates and less roughages than other farm animals because the are monogastric stomach (simple stomach) ii) They have less or negligible protein and vitamin synthesis in the stomach
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  compared to ruminants.Need to be supplied in their diet iii) They grow relatively faster in relation to their body size iv) They have shorter reproductive cycle and produce large number of the young ones v) They start reproductive life when less mature. Pigs continue to grow up to 4th lactation or more  Pigs require in addition to water: i) Carbohydrates ii) Protein iii) Fats iv) Minerals v) Vitamins  For practical purposes pig’s diet must contain generally the following nutrients concentrations: i) Energy = 13 MJ/kg ii) Protein = 13 – 20 % CP iii) Least (minimum) CF = preferable less than 5% iv) Calcium = 0.6 – 0.8 % v) Phosphorus= 0.4 – 0.7 % vi) Lysine = 0.7 – 1% vii) Methionine + Cystine = 0.5 – 0.7 %
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  Table 5: Nutrientrequirements of pigs Nutrients Growing Finishing Pregnant sows, boars Lactating sows 10-50 kg 50 – 100 kg DE (MJ/day) 13 -26 44 26 74 CP (%) 15 -20 15 14 16 Requirements (% of diet) Lysine 0.75 -0.95 0.60 0.45 0.6 Methionine + Cystine 0.5 – 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4 Calcium 0.6 -0.8 0.5 0.75 0.75 Phosphorus 0.5-0.65 0.4 0.6 0.6 NaCl 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Requirement (g/day) CP 200-300 300-400 250-350 700-1000 Lysine 9-14 19 10 40 Methionine + Cystine 5-8 11 5 20 Calcium 7-11 16 15 30-40 Phosphorus 6-10 12 10 20-30
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  References 1. Lekule F.P. (1998). Pig production. Teaching Compendium. Windhoek Sept/October 1998. 32 pp. 2. Miller, E. R., D. E. Ullrey and A.J. Lewis (1991). Swine Nutrition. Butterworth-Heinemann, a Division of Reed Publishing (USA) Inc. 673 pp 3. Payne, W. J. A. (1990). An introduction to animal husbandry in the tropics. Longman, Scientific and Technical. Copublished in the United States with John Willey and Sons. Inco. 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158. Pages 627 to 683. 4. Pond, W. G. and J. H. Maner (1974). Swine Production in the Temperate and Tropical Environments. W.H.
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  Freeman and CompanySan Francisco 646 pp.