This document provides an overview of various programming languages that can be used for web application development, including both object-oriented and functional languages. It discusses languages like Java, Scala, Clojure, Ruby, JavaScript, Haskell, Erlang, JRuby, Lisp, OCaml, and Scheme. The key points are that Scala allows both object-oriented and functional programming on the JVM, Clojure is a Lisp dialect designed for functional programming, and many languages like Ruby and JavaScript support some functional paradigms even if not purely functional. The document encourages trying different languages to experience their features and paradigms.

1. Languages used by web app development services
It's an issue that has been plaguing the developer community for years. There are many
languages, many different methodologies and there is much debate about which ones are
good, which ones are bad and why. This question comes up again now as Apple has
announced their new language Swift at this year's WWDC. Given the fragmentation of the
Android stack, it would be nice to know what 'the best' language might be… but how can we
tell?
The problem with asking which language you should use is that it depends on too many
factors, so any answer will only be partially correct at best. If you're a startup company
providing app development services in India then maybe Objective-C or even Java aren't
too bad given your limited choices. If you're looking to boost your resume then maybe you go
for something more cutting edge, but in this case, I'd argue that Objective-C isn't the best
choice. If you've already decided on Objective-C then you probably don't need my advice at
all!
The C Language (for better or worse)
If we ignore machine code (assembly) and other 'low-level languages like C++ and Rust then
there are two main groups, each represented by a language:
Object-Oriented Languages Functional Languages
For PHP web development companies the object-oriented languages include things like
Java and Objective-C. The functional languages include things like Scala and Clojure. There
is an overlap between these two groups as some languages (e.g. C++) use concepts from
both but generally speaking the difference comes down to how functions and data structures
are treated and passed around in code. With object-oriented languages objects 'own' their

2. methods or functions while with functional programming everything is passed around as
separate entities without any particular ownership of state (i.e.: there is no such thing as an
'instance variable'). This might not be very clear now but if you think about the differences
between Javascript and say Ruby then it should become more apparent.
So what does this all mean and how do we use them? Well firstly, Objective-C and Swift
(Apple's new language) are both object oriented languages based on C. If we ignore the
differences between the two languages themselves (i.e.: Swift vs ObjC syntax) actually
writing code in either is really not that different from either functional or other object oriented
languages like Java or C++. The biggest difference you might find is that because functions
aren't passed around as separate entities you end up passing objects rather than functions
to e.g.: map() . It also means that 'deciding' on whether a language is functional or not
comes down to deciding if it supports function/method passing or not.
So, if we ignore Objective-C and Swift (for the moment) then the two key contenders for 'best
language' are Java and Scala. If you provide hybrid app development services then it is
important to remember that these languages can be used on the server-side too so this
doesn't just affect app development! Also while I've argued in favour of functional
programming here this isn't really an exhaustive list of functional languages but rather what I
think are the best options given the choices available at present:
Types of Language-
Scala: Scala is a functional language that runs on the JVM. It's statically typed and supports
both object oriented and functional programming paradigms. It can use Java libraries and
vice versa thanks to it being its own 'virtual' runtime rather than the standard bytecode
compiler. So it also has access to all of the crucial Java web related server-side stuff such as
Spring MVC, Hibernate etc…
Clojure: Clojure is another functional language but this time running on top of the JVM (like
Scala). Clojure dispenses with traditional class models in favour of an immutable model that
should make multi-threading much easier (if done properly). This gives Clojure a very
'different' feel compared to most other languages and as a result some web app
development service providers love it while others hate it. I think that you'd need to spend
time with Clojure before deciding if it's the right choice for you.
Ruby: Again, Ruby is not a functional language but thanks to things like Functional
Programming from Chris Willett we can write code using FP paradigms in a non-functional
language. While this isn't a perfect solution (it only really works on the server side) it does
provide another option for those who aren't able/willing to make a big change. This approach
is another reason why Ruby on Rails remains popular among website development
services despite having been around for nearly 10 years now!
Javascript: Javascript is often associated with website development services but it is also
possible to use Javascript on the server-side. As a result, there are two main ways of doing
this. The first is via node.js which uses a non-blocking I/O model and has libraries for doing
web stuff like connecting to a database etc… The second is through something like Rhino or

3. Narwhal which starts a 'new' JVM instance from within your Javascript code (so you're
writing server-side code in Javascript but running it as if from within Java).
Haskell: Haskell is often used as an academic FP language because it tries to solve what
some people see as issues with conventional functional languages such as laziness.
Laziness can have performance implications so Haskell aims to avoid this by 'forcing'
evaluation on demand (or as the result of a specific function). Because of this Haskell feels
more like a conventional object-oriented language than some other functional languages.
This makes it easier to pick up and use as an FP language but as such, doesn't feel as
'functional'.
Erlang: Erlang isn't strictly speaking a functional language since mutation n is allowed/used
heavily in many places. However, one of the main reasons for its adoption has been its
ability to handle massive workloads without crashing thanks to the way that concurrency
works within the VM/runtime. At present Erlang can be run on top of either BEAM or JVM so
you have two options for running it both with pros and cons.
JRuby: JRuby is a 'native' Ruby runtime that runs on the JVM. It allows you to use all of
those Java libraries from within your Ruby code as well as having access to all those great
MVC/ORM frameworks that have been built around the JVM. In this regard, it's very much
like using Rhino or Narwhal with Javascript but it gives you a far more mature platform for
doing so by providing various web development services .
Lisp: Lisp isn't a language I've used much myself (beyond a little bit of Clojure) but many
people use Lisp and it has created some incredibly useful tools such as Emacs, Slime,
Cider, etc… So if your problem domain fits then Lisp may be the perfect solution.
OCaml: OCaml is a very interesting functional language that is worth looking at if you're able
to do so. It can solve several problems which you might otherwise choose to use Erlang for
and it's also quite approachable thanks to some great books such as Programming in
OCaml.
Scala: Scala is a language that runs on the JVM but has been designed from the ground up
to support FP techniques. Scala was built by Martin Odersky who had this article about why
he did what he did when creating Scala (check out page 27/28). As a result, Scala feels very
'functional' and has even been used for things like 'functional' web app development
services in India
Scheme: Scheme is a Lisp which is something I've not actually used but it's a very small
and simple language. The interesting thing about Scheme is that it has been adopted by
companies such as Google to teach people the value of functional programming because it
doesn't include things like 'if/else statements (you have to build this yourself)…
So there you go a quick intro into a few different FP languages that can be used on the
server-side. This list isn't definitive so feel free to mention any others in the comments below
or even drop me an email if you have some questions! Cheers :)

4. Most of these are likely familiar to many programmers, however, a few points may be
interesting to mention:
An Intro to FP Languages -
- Clojure is a Lisp dialect, as mentioned above by the author. It was designed from the
ground up to support functional programming. While its primary target is common LISP
implementations (reading MRC files etc.) it also runs on the JVM and even iOS! There’s a
book about doing iPhone app development with Clojure . As of today, it has been
downloaded 4.7 million times according to Clojure.
- Scala is a multi-paradigm language that supports OOP and FP styles of coding. The main
selling point of Scala is that it " interoperates seamlessly with Java " – allowing you full
access to existing Java libraries from within your Scala codebase. It was created by Martin
Odersky, who authored the article " Why Functional Programming Matters " on page 27/28 in
which he describes why he wanted to bring functional programming to the JVM.
- Hack is a dialect of PHP which is interoperable with most modern PHP code. As it's based
on PHP you can do everything in Hack that you would normally be able to do in PHP
however its type system allows for stricter checking than regular PHP does. This means that
many errors which are not detected at compile time will instead be detected during script
execution. There has been some discussion on whether this should become part of the
'official release of Hack… so keep an eye out on php.net for any future news on this topic.
- OCaml is an interesting language that was created by Xavier Leroy and Jérôme Bouillon.
It's a multi-paradigm language that also supports list, matrix, and other scientific computation
( list. CMA, matrix. CMA, etc.). Its syntax isn't the easiest to pick up but it does support
things like modules/objects/variants, exceptions, first-class functions, etc… which make for
some very powerful techniques in problem-solving. As it runs on the JVM there are bindings
for many existing Java libraries including JDBC drivers! There is also another dialect of
OCaml called F# – this uses some similar syntax however has been designed with
Microsoft-based technologies in mind (hence the 'F') which can be used by website
development services
- Scheme is a Lisp dialect that was designed to support functional programming. There are
many interesting features of Scheme but one of my favorites is how it has no assignment
statements… This means you always have to ask yourself "how can I achieve x without
using an assignment statement?"! Another feature I like with Scheme is how everything is
represented as a list – symbols, functions, etc., this allows for some very powerful
techniques in problem-solving. It runs on the JVM and there are bindings for existing Java
libraries available. The official website also includes a good book about learning Scheme.
Conclusion
One of the main points of this article was to highlight that being able to write functional code
can be done in many different languages. There are also some very cool features of all
these languages that work together with their respective design paradigms which you might

5. not have encountered before… so please feel free to try them out! In your next website
development project.