Aflatoxins, mycotoxins produced by moulds like Aspergillus species, pose significant public health risks, particularly in developing countries, with millions at risk of chronic exposure. A study in Nairobi revealed consumer behaviors regarding processed milk and their perceptions of aflatoxin, showing that while many are willing to pay more for aflatoxin-free certified milk, overall knowledge about aflatoxins and their health impacts remains insufficient. The findings suggest a need for credible certification systems and increased public awareness to address health concerns related to aflatoxin contamination.

1. Introduction
Aflatoxins are mycotoxins produced by certain
species of moulds, mainly Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are considered an
important public health concern in the developing
world and can seriously affect people’s health and
livelihoods. Recent estimates suggest that there are
more than five billion people worldwide at risk of
chronic exposure to aflatoxins (Williams et al., 2004;
WHO, 2005).
The 2004 aflatoxin outbreak in Kenya was
responsible for 317 cases and 125 deaths. A known
consequence of chronic exposure to aflatoxins is
increased risk of liver cancer. Aflatoxin exposure in
young children has been shown to be associated
with stunting and underweight (Wang et al., 1996;
WHO, 2005).
The current study aims to reveal important insights
in Kenyans´ milk purchase and consumption
behaviour. It also addresses a major public health
concern by focusing on aflatoxin. Kenyan processed
milk consumers’ perceptions of aflatoxin are
identified, along with their willingness to pay (WTP)
for an aflatoxin-free certificate.
Materials and methods
Figure 1. Aflatoxin contamination pathway
A survey was conducted in different urban areas of
Nairobi during July 2013 using face-to-face
interviews with 299 consumers/buyers of processed
milk.
The questionnaire included questions related to:
milk purchase and consumption habits; respondent´s
aflatoxin awareness; and a purchase decision
simulation using choice experiments.
Card 1: Please indicate the most preferred cow milk and the least
preferred cow milk (Tick only one case in each line)
Figure 2. An example of a choice experiment card
Results
• 79% of respondents declared they boil the milk prior to consumption. The main reasons are for
health (53%) and hygienic (34%) concerns. Majority of respondents (93%) believe that milk is safe
after boiling, which is not true in the case of aflatoxin contamination (thermostable).
• 80% of respondents have heard about aflatoxin, and 45% believe it could be transferred into milk
while 9% said “no” and 46% don’t know. The majority of respondents (71%) consider that aflatoxin
could have serious health impacts on humans.
• A high proportion of Kenyans does not trust certificates and labels.
Table 1. WTP estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for
“aflatoxin free” certified milk by type of consumers’ group
Conclusions
• Consumers in urban areas are willing to pay a
premium for buying an aflatoxin-free certified
processed milk.
• Certification requires credibility and intense
public information, as well as institutional
development. Milk value chain stakeholders
should consider establishing an independent
certification setup that will be accepted and
trusted.
• Consumers do not have sufficient knowledge
about aflatoxin and its associated health risks
in milk. Research results such as these can
then provide the latest and most relevant
information which, in association with dairy
industry advertisements and brands, can have
a high impact on Kenyans and their
perceptions.
Literature cited
WHO. 2005. Publication strategies preventing
aflatoxin exposure. World Health Organization,
1-26.
Williams, J. H., Phillips, T. D., Jolly, P. E., Stiles, J. K.,
Jolly, C. M., Aggarwal, D., 2004. Human aflatoxicosis
in developing countries: A review of toxicology,
exposure, potential health consequences, and
interventions. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80, 1106–1122.
.
Nadhem Mtimet1*, Maria Walke2, Derek Baker3, Johanna Lindahl1, Monica Hartmann2, Delia Grace1
1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI); 2University of Bonn ; 3University of New England
*Corresponding author: n.mtimet@cgiar.org
Kenyan Awareness of Aflatoxin: An Analysis of Processed Milk Consumers
Acknowledgements
This article is part of the FoodAfrica
Programme, financed as research
collaboration between the MFA of
Finland, MTT Agrifood Research
Finland, the CGIAR research
programs on: Agriculture for
Nutrition and Health and on Policies
Institutions Markets led by the
International Food Policy Research
Institute, and the GIZ.
Milk 1 Milk 2 Milk 3
Pasteurized Pasteurized UHT
Whole Skimmed Low Fat
Aflatoxin-free certified Non-certified Aflatoxin-free certified
Tetra pack Plastic container Pouch
90 KSH/Litre 130 KSH/Litre 110 KSH/Litre
Corn/feed
purchased
Treatment
Corn/feed
produced
at farm
AB1
AB1
AB1-> AM1
Milk produced at farm
ConsumersFarmer
AB1
AM1
14%
55%
20%
7%
4%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
More than
once a day
Once a day Once/week<
<once/day
Once a
week
Less than
once a week
1% 57% 20% 12% 10%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
0.3 litre
0.5 litre
1.0 litre
2.0 litres and more
I don´t remember
Figure 4. Quantity of milk bought
Figure 3. Milk purchase frequency
20% 43% 11% 10% 16%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
80 KSH/litre
90 KSH/litre
100 KSH/litre
Other
Don´t remember
Figure 5. Milk purchase price
65% 77% 6%
Shop
Super-
/Hypermarket
Milk bar
Kiosk
Hawker
Figure 6. Outlet of milk purchase
Segment WTP (KSH/l) 95% CI
All sample 136.8 [108.7; 176.3]
Heard about aflatoxin 161.7 [121.4; 226.4]
Have not heard about aflatoxin 99.0 [68.0; 154.1]
Aflatoxin can be transferred 165.2 [111.0; 259.2]
It can’t be transferred /don’t know 129.7 [95.7; 179.3]
• In general respondents are
willing to pay more for
“aflatoxin free” certified milk.
• Respondents who have heard
about aflatoxin and those who
believe it could be transferred
to humans are willing to pay
higher amounts.
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August 2015