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The Foundations ofPsychological Science |31|
1. Examine Past Research
The researchers reviewed previously published studies, noting
that both goal-focused and achievement-focused approaches are
popular. If the goal is weight loss, for example, one goal-focused
approach is to count down the pounds (only 10 pounds to go!),
while one achievement-focused approach is to celebrate mile-
stones. (Congratulations on losing the first 10 pounds!)
2. Define the Question
The researchers also noted that maintaining a goal focus seems to
inspire more goal-oriented behaviors. Thus, they defined their
main question as “Will people lose more weight if they maintain a
goal focus compared to an achievement focus?”
3. Propose a Hypothesis
What exactly is a hypothesis? A theoretical question or statement
(like “Will people lose more weight if they maintain a goal focus
or if they maintain an achievement focus?”) is usually too vague
to be assessed directly. In contrast, a hypothesis (hi-POTH-eh-
sis) is the predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated
guess about the relationship between variables. In other words, a
hypothesis is a testable hunch about behavior, or a statement about
the outcome you believe you’ll see. In this study, the hypothesis
was that people who adopted a goal focus would lose more weight
than those who had an achievement focus.
Theoretical questions are transformed into testable hypotheses
through operational definitions (as we saw earlier in this chapter, an
operational definition states the exact procedures used to measure a
concept). Conlon and his colleagues began by creating a 12-week
exercise program involving weekly group meetings and a companion
website. Operationally defining weight loss was straightforward; par-
ticipants were weighed on a standard digital scale at the beginning of
the weight-loss period and once every week until the program ended.
Measuring someone’s goal focus or achievement focus was a bit
harder since these terms refer to mental processes. Fortunately,
operational definitions also allow mental processes that are not
directly observable to be tested in real-world terms (see
● Figure 1.3). Conlon and his colleagues modified their weight-loss
program so that the weekly surveys, feedback, and group
discussions revolved around either a goal focus or an achievement
focus. They then assigned a third of their participants to one pro-
gram or the other (the final third was assigned to a “control” group
without either focus). For example, every week, goal-focused partic-
ipants were asked to describe how much more weight they needed
to lose to reach their goal, while achievement-focused participants
were asked to describe how much weight they had already lost.
4. Gather Evidence/Test Hypothesis
In the next step, scientists will gather data (from animals or hu-
mans) to test their hypothesis. An examination of psychological
research will reveal that researchers can collect many different
types of data and different procedures, or methods, to test hypoth-
eses. The types of data and research methods that psychologists
use are described later in this chapter.
Aren’t there rules about how scientists must treat people and ani-
mals when they gather evidence? Absolutely! It probably won’t come
as a surprise to you that psychological research sometimes raises
ethical questions. For example, is it ethical to carry out research with
small children or adults with dementia, given that they are unable to
give their consent to participate in the research? Or what about some
classic research in which psychologists demonstrated that it was
possible to “plant” false memories in the minds of their participants,
Conceptual level
Concepts
Concrete level
Operational
definitions
Hypothesized relationship
Observed relationship
Weight loss
Participation in a
12-week weight-loss
program focusing on
either a goal focus or
an achievement focus
Difference in
measured weight from
week-to-week during
weight-loss program
Goal focus or
achievement focus
●●Figure 1.3● Operational definitions.● Operational defi-
nitions are used to link concepts with concrete observations.
Conlon and his colleagues (2011) define their weight-loss pro-
grams in enough detail that other researchers can confirm both
the validity of their operational definitions and the accuracy of
their results. Operational definitions vary in how well they repre-
sent concepts. For this reason, many different experiments may
be necessary to draw clear conclusions about hypothesized rela-
tionships in psychology.
Applying the scientific method to the study of behavior requires careful
observation. Here, two psychologists observe and record a session in which
a child’s eating behavior is being studied.
Falsification The deliberate attempt to uncover how a
commonsense belief or scientific theory might be false.
Scientific method A form of critical thinking based on careful
measurement, controlled observation, and repeatable results.
Hypothesis Predicted outcome of an experiment, or an educated
guess about the relationship between variables.
The
Star-Ledger/Robert
Sciarrino/The
Image
Works
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|32| Chapter 1
whogenuinely believed them to be true? This research provided
important information about how memory works and how it can be
manipulated, but is it ethical to purposefully lead people to believe
that they had experienced something that they had not?
As a reply to such questions, American Psychological Associa-
tion (APA) guidelines state: “Psychologists must carry out investiga-
tions with respect for the people who participate and with concern
for their dignity and welfare” (American Psychological Association,
2017a; see ▲● Table 1.4). Ethical guidelines also apply to animals,
where investigators are expected to “ensure the welfare of animals
and treat them humanely.” To ensure that ethical guidelines are ap-
plied properly, most university and college psychology departments
have Institutional Research Boards (IRBs) that oversee research.
Now let’s return to the question of whether weight loss is easier
when you maintain a goal focus or an achievement focus. The re-
searchers gathered some data and, as predicted, goal-focused
individuals lost more weight than did either achievement-focused or
control group individuals. They also reported being more
committed to reaching their goal weights. Accordingly, the evi-
dence gathered provided support for the researchers’ hypothesis.
5. Build Theory
How do theories fit in? A theory is a system of ideas designed to
interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing
data and predicts future observations. Good theories summarize
observations, explain them, allow prediction, and guide further
research. Without theories of forgetting, personality, stress, mental
illness, and the like, psychologists would drown in a sea of discon-
nected facts (Stanovich, 2013). (■●One of the major limitations of
Freudian personality theory is that many of its concepts are not
testable or falsifiable. ■●See Section 12.1.)
Conlon and his colleagues interpreted their results as consis-
tent with theories of motivation that stress the importance of
being aware of how much work remains to be done to achieve a
goal. The results were also portrayed as extending these theories
into the field of health psychology and as being relevant to the
design of health-intervention programs.
6. Publication and Replication of Results
Because scientific information must always be publicly available,
the results of psychological studies are usually published in profes-
sional journals (see ▲●Table 1.5). That way, other researchers can
read about the results and make their own observations if they
doubt the study’s findings (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016). In a
scholarly article published in the Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, Conlon and his colleagues (2011) describe the question
they investigated, the methods they used, and the results of their
study comparing goal-focused and achievement-focused dieters.
Studying the Science: The Importance
of Replicating Scientific Results
Just as researchers are obliged to treat participants ethically, they
are also obliged to report on their data in an ethical manner. This
means that the methods must be reported accurately, and that
researchers cannot “cherry pick” only the results that they want
people to see when the findings are published.
The importance of treating data ethically was highlighted
recently when it became clear that publications based on a famous
psychological study—the Stanford Prison Experiment—had mis-
reported the conditions under which information was gathered,
and the findings that were obtained (Le Texier, 2019). In this com-
pelling study, the researchers assigned 12 young men to be either
“guards” or “prisoners” in a simulated prison. Early articles based
on the research suggested that the men quickly became immersed
in the roles they were assigned. Those assigned to be guards
allegedly became cruel and abusive, while those assigned to be
prisoners became passive and despondent, with some demon-
strating high levels of desperation. The situation at the “prison”
became so dire that the study, which was initially supposed to last
two weeks, had to be cut short at day six.
Publications and presentations by Zimbardo and his colleagues
about this study emphasized the power of the situation in deter-
mining our behavior; in other words, they suggested that anyone
can be overcome by social roles and the norms that accompany
them (Zimbardo et al., 1971). It has come to light, though, that
some of the study’s methods and results were misrepresented in a
way that allowed the researchers to tell the story that they wanted
to report, rather than one that accurately depicted what happened
in the study (Le Texier, 2019). For example, rather than the guards
spontaneously acting cruelly toward the prisoners, it became clear
that they were coached by the researchers as to the ways in which
they should behave. It has also emerged that some of the guards’
and prisoners’ behaviors were not genuine, but instead were acts
put on by the participants to lend drama to the scenario.
Misrepresentations of a study’s methods and results create
challenges when it comes to replicating (repeating) its findings.
Do no harm.
Describe risks accurately to potential participants.
Ensure that participation is voluntary.
Minimize any discomfort to participants.
Maintain confidentiality.
Do not invade privacy unnecessarily.
Use deception only when absolutely necessary.
Remove any misconceptions caused by deception (i.e., debriefing).
Provide results and interpretations to participants.
Treat participants with dignity and respect.
▲●●
Table 1.4 Basic Ethical Guidelines for Psychological
Researchers
● Abstract Research reports begin with a brief summary of the study
and its findings. The abstract lets you get an overview of the contents
without reading the entire article.
● Introduction The introduction describes the question to be
investigated. It also provides background information by reviewing
prior studies on the same or related topics.
● Method This section tells how and why observations were made. It also
describes the specific procedures used to gather data. That way, other
researchers can repeat the study to see if they get the same results.
● Results The outcome of the investigation is presented. Data may be
graphed, summarized in tables, or statistically analyzed.
● Discussion The results of the study are discussed in relation to the
original question. Implications of the study are explored and further
studies may be proposed.
▲●Table 1.5 Outline of a Research Report
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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