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G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx

The document outlines a Grade 10 IT lecture course covering topics including file organization, computer networking, and file management procedures. It details file types, extensions, storage solutions, and the importance of backup and recovery. Additionally, it explains the principles of computer networks, transmission media, and telecommunication systems.

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IT Grade 10 Lecture Note
Course outline • UNIT 1 : ORGANIZATION OF FILES • UNIT 2 : COMPUTER NETWORK • UNIT 3 : APPLICATION SOFTWARE • UNIT 4 : IMAGE PROCESSING AND MULTIMEDIA • UNIT 5 : INFORMATION AND COMPUTER SECURITY • UNIT 6 : FUNDAMENTALS OF PROGRAMMING
Unit One ORGANIZATION OF FILES
1.1. Introduction • Revision from Grade 9 • A file stores a data which can be a document, a picture, text, video, audio, etc. • A file has different icons in a computer. • A folder, which is also called a directory, is a container of files. • A folder helps us to organize related files together.
1.2 File Management • In Windows operating system, the primary way of interacting with files and folders is through the File Explorer(Win+E) application • File Explorer enables you to create, view, rename, delete and search files and folders in computer. • File management is the process and act of creating an organized structure in which you store information for easy retrieval. Disk A physical storage medium that holds data. It can be internal or external and is often portable. Hard Disk (HDD) – Stores files and system data; DVD – Holds movies. Drive A hardware device that reads, writes, or provides access to a disk. C: Drive – The primary storage drive in a computer; USB Drive. Driver Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware devices like drives. Printer Driver – Enables a computer to interact with a printer; GPU Driver.
1.3 Storage Drives OneDrive and Google drive are cloud-based drives on which files are stored. Disk A physical storage medium that holds data. It can be internal or external and is often portable. Hard Disk (HDD) – Stores files and system data; DVD – Holds movies. Drive A hardware device that reads, writes, or provides access to a disk. C: Drive – The primary storage drive in a computer; USB Drive. Driver Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware devices like drives. Printer Driver – Enables a computer to interact with a printer; GPU Driver.
File Name Extension • A file extension is a three- or four-letter identifier found at the end of a file name being followed by a period. The extension tells you about the characteristics of a file and its use. • Examples of file extensions are: • image uses the .jpg or .jpeg extension (for example, image.jpg). • A Word document uses the .docx extension, or .doc for older versions (for example, CoverLetter.docx). • An audio file uses the .mp3 extension (for example, song.mp3). • An Excel spreadsheet uses the .xlsx extension, or .xls for older versions (for example, budget.xls). • File extensions are used by an operating system to identify what applications are associated with a particular file type. • In other words, a file extension specifies an application that opens the file when you double-click on it • An operating system is a software program required to manage and operate computing devices like smart phones, tablets, computers and supercomputers (WINDOW, UNIX, LINUX, ANDRIOD )
• Home work: • Discuss other format of file such as image files, video,
Home work Answers File Format Extension Name Meaning Type Associated Applications Common Uses JPEG (.jpg) Joint Photographic Experts Group Image Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Windows Photos Photographs, web images; supports lossy compression PNG (.png) Portable Network Graphics Image Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Windows Photos Web graphics, images with transparency; supports lossless compression GIF (.gif) Graphics Interchange Format Image/ Animation Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Web Browsers Animated images, simple graphics for web use BMP (.bmp) Bitmap Image Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop Uncompressed images, used for high-quality graphics TIFF (.tiff) Tagged Image File Format Image Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW High-quality images, often used in professional photography and publishing MP4 (.mp4) MPEG-4 Part 14 Video VLC Media Player, QuickTime, Windows Media Player Digital video files, widely used for streaming and storage AVI (.avi) Audio Video Interleave Video VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player Uncompressed or lightly compressed video; high-quality playback MKV (.mkv) Matroska Video Video VLC Media Player, KMPlayer, Plex Container format, supports multiple audio and subtitle tracks MOV (.mov) QuickTime Movie Video QuickTime, VLC Media Player Apple’s video format, commonly used for high-quality video on Macs MP3 (.mp3) MPEG Audio Layer III Audio VLC Media Player, iTunes, Spotify Compressed audio format, widely used for music and podcasts WAV (.wav) Waveform Audio File Format Audio VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player High-quality audio format, often used in professional audio production PDF (.pdf) Portable Document Format Document Adobe Acrobat, Foxit Reader Document format for text, images, and graphics, widely used for sharing files DOCX (.docx) Document Open XML Document Microsoft Word, Google Docs Word processing format, used for creating and editing text documents XLSX (.xlsx) Excel Spreadsheet Spreadsheet Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets Spreadsheet format, used for data analysis and organization
1.5 File Directory Structure • the way an operating system shows its system and other types of files to the computer user. • Files are typically displayed in a hierarchical tree structure. • The first or the top folder (directory) in the structure is called the root directory. • root directory contains all other folders or files in the drive. A directory contained inside another directory is called a subdirectory. • parent and child are often used to describe the relationship between the directory and the subdirectory. • the root directory of the main partition on a computer is usually C:. The root folder of a DVD or CD drive might be D:. • A folder called a directory a tool for arranging files on a disk.
1.5.1 Directory Path or File Path • Is used to locate a file or a directory in a computer • The slash () is used to delimit names in the sequence. • Can be • Absolute : complete path starting from root directory (e.g., C:). • E.g. C:userssaramusicclick.mp3 • Relative : relative to current working directory • uses .. to go up a directory or or specifies only the folder structure from the current directory. • Example 1: ..DocumentsProjectsfile.txt • This goes up one directory and then enters the DocumentsProjects folder to find file.txt. • Example 2: Imagespicture.jpg • If the current directory is C:UsersUsernameDocuments, this will look for picture.jpg inside the Images folder within Documents.
1.6 File Conversion • is the process of taking a file of one format and changing it into another. • Usage: file incompatibility and make uneditable word documents by changing it to pdf • A file converter is software that converts a document from one file type to another. E.g. FoxitPDFEditor, PDF to Word Converter etc
1.7 File Importing and Exporting • File import is the process of moving files or data used in one program to another. • E.g. import a A comma-separated values (CSV) file into an Excel spreadsheet. • A file export is a process of moving information from a program into a file. • E.g. export a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to a CSV file. • E.g2 Open any word document and use save as or export options to convert it into PDF, Plain text, or any other options that appear in the pop-down menu.
1.8 Saving and Opening Files • you can also easily change the file format when saving a file • When you save a file in any application program, the application saves the files using the default file format of a program. • When you open a file in Windows, it will usually open in the default application for that type of file.
1.9 File Backup and Recovery • Backup is the process of creating and storing copies of data to protect primary data loss and failure caused due to HW & SW failur, virus, accidental deletion etc. such as photos, health records, assignments, academic records and other credentials. • It can be saved to an external storage device or the cloud. • A proper backup copy is stored in a separate system or medium, such as tape. • How to Backup Files • StartSettingsUpdate and SecurityBackupremovable drive file start to be backuped in removable disk • Recovery and Restoring: is the process of returning a lost, stolen or damaged data to their original conditions or to move to new location
1.10File Compression • File compression(file ziping) is the process of reducing logical size of a original file to save disk space for easier and faster transmission over a network or the Internet. • To zip (compress) a file or a folder • right-click the file or the folder to be compressed Send toCompressed (zipped) folderA new zipped folder with the same name is created • popular compression tools are WinRAR, WinZip and 7zip. • To Unzip File to extract files from zip folder • right-click on zip folder Select Extract to select extract to “folder name”extracted folder with same and location appear
1.11 Deleting a File • File deletion is the removal of a file from a computer’s file system. • Recycle Bin is the location where deleted files or folders are temporarily stored in a computer. • To delete a files/ a folder/s • Select files/foldersRight clickchoose delet • Select files/folderspress delete key • Select files/folders drag it to the desktop’s Recycle Bin icon. • Select files/foldersshift key and hit the Delete key when you want to delete a file to prevent it from going to the Recycle Bin.
1.12 Restoring Deleted File from Recycle bin • Go to recycle bineselect files/folders to be restoredright clickcoose restorefile/folder restored on original location • Or simply double click it from recycled bin it will be restored • NB: if file is not found in recycle bin it is removed permanently and restoring needs 3rd party software such as Easeus recovery sofware
Laboratory 01 1. Creating and Managing Folders (File Directory Structure) create a new folder named "Grade10_Lab“ under root directory. Inside "Grade10_Lab", create three subfolders named "Images", "Documents", and "Backup". 2. Creating and Saving Files (File Extensions and Naming) Open Notepad and type "This is a sample text document for our lab.“, and Save the file in the "Documents" folder as "Sample.txt". Using Paint, create a simple drawing and save it in the "Images" folder as "Drawing.jpg". 3. File Conversion Create a word file with similar content and Save the Word file as "Sample.docx" in the "Documents" folder. Save it as pdf using save as commands 4. File Importing and Exporting Import the image "Drawing.jpg" into a Word document and save it 5. File Backup and Recovery • StartSettingsUpdate and SecurityBackupadd drive such as removable drive or a network location (External drive is recomended) file start to be backuped in removable disk • Or simply Copy the entire "Documents" folder, Paste it into the "Backup" folder to create a backup. • In addition show them how to backyp in onedrive(up to 5 Gb free) and google drive 6. File Compression • Select the "Images" folder., Right-click and choose "Send to > Compressed (zipped) folder". • Extract it to desktop 7. Deleting and Restoring Files • Delete the "Sample.txt" file by right-clicking and choosing "Delete". , Open the Recycle Bin and locate "Sample.txt". • Right-click the file in the Recycle Bin and select "Restore"., Verify the file is back in the "Documents" folder.
Chapter Two: COMPUTER NETWORK • At the end of this unit, learners will be able to: • Explain transmission media. • Describe telecommunications network. • Explain mobile and cellular communications. • Analyze satellite networks. • Discuss data communication. • Conceptualize the use of Internet protocols (IP).
2.1. Overview • Computer Network is a connection of two or more computers either through wired or wirelesly for data teansmisson and resource sharing • In addition to wired /wireless midum protocol is needed for different computers to agree on the same rule • Components of network from G9 • End device • Intermediary device • Medium • protocol
2.2 Network Media (Transmission Media) • Medium is the physical path by which carry a message from sender to receiver • Can be wired or wireless
2.2.1 Guided (Wired) Media • A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium • include • twisted-pair cable, • coaxial cable and • fiber-optic cable.
Media Type Characteristics Applications Advantages Disadvantage s Connectors Signal Transmissio n Bandwidth Maximum Distance Common Use Case Wiring conventions: UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together without shielding, used in Ethernet networks per IEEE 802.3 standards LANs, telephone networks, DSL connections Cost-effective, easy to install, flexible, widely used Susceptible to electromagne tic interference (EMI), limited bandwidth RJ-45, RJ-11 Electrical signals Up to 1 Gbps (Cat6) Up to 100 meters (for Ethernet) Office networks, general- purpose cabling straight-through and crossover cables, affected by crosstalk and EMI STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Similar to UTP but with an additional metallic shield to block external interference Industrial environments , high- interference areas Improved noise immunity, reduced crosstalk More expensive and less flexible than UTP, more complex installation RJ-45 Electrical signals Up to 10 Gbps (Cat7) Up to 100 meters (for Ethernet) High- interference areas Combines cancellation and twisting techniques, used in fast Ethernet and data channels Coaxial Cable Central copper conductor with insulating layer, metallic shield, and plastic cover, available in thick and thin variants Cable TV, broadband internet, RF transmission High bandwidth, good noise isolation, durable Bulky, harder to install, susceptible to signal degradation over long distances BNC, F-type, N-type Electrical signals Up to 10 Gbps Up to 500 meters (for broadband) Cable TV, internet connections Types: thick coaxial (better noise immunity) and thin coaxial (less noise isolation) Fiber Optics Uses light pulses for data transmission through glass/plastic fibers, with core surrounded by protective layers High-speed data networks, undersea cables, long- distance communicati on Extremely high bandwidth, immune to EMI, secure, long-distance capability Expensive, delicate, specialized equipment needed SC, ST, MTP/MPO, MT-RJ Light signals Up to several Tbps Up to 100 km+ (with amplification) Backbone networks, large-scale communicati on Types: single-mode (longer distances) and multi-mode (shorter distances)
Media Type Characteristics Applications Advantages Disadvantages Antennas/ Devices Signal Transmissio n Frequency Range Maximum Distance Common Use Case Additional Concepts Radio Waves Electromagneti c waves with frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz; omnidirectiona l AM/FM radio, TV broadcasting, maritime communication , cordless phones Can propagate long distances, easy to set up, suitable for multicasting Susceptible to interference, less secure, limited bandwidth compared to higher frequencies Omnidirectiona l antennas (e.g., dipole, whip) Omnidirecti onal transmission 3 kHz to 1 GHz Several kilometers (depending on power) Broadcasting (radio and TV), walkie-talkies Types: ground, sky, and line-of- sight propagation; impacted by interference from similar frequencies Microwav es High-frequency radio waves (1- 300 GHz), unidirectional, requiring line- of-sight transmission Cellular communication , satellite links, wireless LANs High bandwidth, suitable for point-to-point communication , less interference than radio waves Requires direct alignment of antennas, affected by obstacles, expensive equipment Unidirectional antennas (e.g., parabolic dish, horn) Line-of-sight transmission 1 GHz to 300 GHz Up to 30-40 km (terrestrial), thousands of km (satellite) Mobile networks, satellite communication s Devices must be elevated to avoid obstructions; can focus signals into narrow beams Infrared Waves Electromagneti c waves with wavelengths longer than visible light; require line-of- sight Remote controls, short- range communication , data transfer between devices Immune to electromagneti c interference, secure over short distances Cannot penetrate walls, limited range, affected by ambient light Infrared transmitters and receivers Direct transmission between devices 300 GHz to 400 THz A few meters Remote controls, short- range wireless devices Used in sensor technology, affected by obstacles and sunlight
Key Concepts Explained: • Propagation Methods: Radio waves can travel via ground propagation (hugging the Earth’s surface), sky propagation (reflected from the ionosphere), and line-of-sight propagation (straight transmission from antenna to antenna). • Antenna Types: • Omnidirectional: Sends/receives signals equally in all directions; useful for broadcasting. • Unidirectional: Focuses signals in a specific direction; essential for long-distance, point- to-point communication. • Advantages of Wireless Media: Offers flexibility, supports mobility, and is faster to deploy compared to wired media. However, it is more susceptible to interference and security issues.
2.3.Telecommunication • Telecommunications refers to long-distance communication of information (voice, data, text, images, audio, and video) over networks using common carriers like radio, television, and telephone. • Example services: Telephone, video conferencing, email, and the Internet. • Modern businesses rely on telecommunications to operate 24/7 globally.
Telecommunications System Components: • Hardware: Computers, modems, and other communication processors. • Communications Media: • Wireline Media: Twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, fiber optics. • Wireless Media: Radio, microwave, infrared, satellite. • Communications Network: Links between devices. • Signal or message to be communicated which can be audio, video, etc • Communications Processors: Devices like modems, multiplexers, controllers. • Communications Software: Controls transmission processes. • Providers: Entities offering communication services (e.g., Ethio Telecom). • Protocols: Rules for information transfer
Analog vs. Digital Signals • Signal is Electromagnetic representation of data which can be • Analog Signals: Continuous waves (e.g., voice or sound). • Digital Signals: Discrete pulses representing data as 1’s and 0’s.
Advantages of Digital Signals 1.Less affected by noise. 2.Easier to amplify over long distances. 3.Digital signals are more reliable and preferred for modern systems.
Importance of Telecommunications: • Reduces communication time and enables remote education and business. • Applications include telephony, email, instant messaging, and video conferencing. • Facilitates global collaboration and problem-solving. • Telecommunications have transformed education, business, and everyday communication
2.4. Mobile Communications • Mobile Communication is the use of wireless technology to communicate over distances without physical connections (wires or cables). • Saves time and effort, making communication convenient and life easier. • Examples: Bluetooth, WLAN, cellular networks.
Bluetooth Network • Definition: A short-range wireless technology that replaces cables for connecting devices. • Key Features: • Operates in the ISM band (2.4 GHz). • Devices pair to establish a connection. • Common uses: Headsets, file sharing, and device interconnectivity. • Advantages of Bluetooth: • No physical connection needed. • Low power consumption. • Easy setup for device pairing.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) • Definition: A communication system using radio frequencies to connect devices within a localized area. • Key Features: • Offers flexibility for mobility. • Can extend or replace a wired LAN. • Requires an Access Point (AP) to bridge wireless traffic into a wired LAN. • WLAN Standards: • Based on IEEE 802.11 standards, marketed under the Wi-Fi brand. • Current speeds up to 11 Mbps; moving towards high- speed WLANs.
Role of Access Points (APs) • APs act as bridges between devices and wired networks. • Overlapping APs can increase coverage and connectivity.
Comparison with Wired LAN:
Stabilization (10 minutes) • Activity: • Discuss the role of Bluetooth in everyday life and compare it with WLAN. • Students identify examples of WLAN in their school or community and explain their significance.
2.5. Cellular Network • A cellular network is a radio network divided into small areas called cells, each served by a base station (BS). • Purpose: Facilitate communication between mobile units or between a mobile and stationary unit.
Key Components 1.Base Station (BS): 1. A fixed transceiver responsible for connecting mobile devices within its cell. 2. Controlled by a Mobile Switching Center (MSC). 2.Mobile Switching Center (MSC): 1. Connects base stations to the main telephone network. 2. Manages call routing, tracking, and billing.
How It Works • Tracking and Handoff: • As users move between cells, the system transfers their connection from one base station to another. • Cellular Coverage: • Each cell’s size depends on its environment: smaller cells in cities, larger in rural areas.
Generations of Cellular Systems
2.6. Satellite Networks • Combination of nodes including satellites, earth stations, and end- user devices. • Use radio waves for communication. • Advantages: Can provide connectivity in remote areas without the need for ground-based infrastructure.
Components of a Satellite System: • Earth Station: Communicates with satellites. • Uplink: Signal sent from Earth to the satellite. • Downlink: Signal sent from the satellite to Earth. • Transponder: Integrated receiver and transmitter in the satellite.
Categories of Satellites: • Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO): Stays fixed relative to the Earth, used for TV and weather monitoring. • Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Used for GPS systems. • Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Used for satellite phones and some internet services.
Advantages of Satellite Systems: • High-quality communication in remote areas. • Broadcasting and point-to-point communication.
Data communication • Exchanges of data/information/instruction between two or more devices over wired or wireless medium • The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on four fundamental characteristics: 1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. 2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. 3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. 4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Components of Data communication A data communication system has 5 components Message: the information to be communicated (text, numbers, pictures, sound, video - or combinations) Sender: the device - computer, video camera, … Receiver: still the device Medium: the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver Protocol: the set of rules that govern data communications; an agreement between the communicating devices
Simplex mode o Data can only travel in one direction. o Tv broadcasting 48 Half duplex mode oData can pass in both directions, but at a different time e.g. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radio system Full Duplex mode o Data can pass in both directions at the same time/simultaneously. operates like a two-way, two-lane street. o e.g. A telephone conversation • 3 mode: the manner in which data is sent over the underlying medium Modes of Transmission 02/01/2025
2.7 Internet protocol • Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that govern the format of data sent over the internet or a local network. • It is essential for the communication between devices across networks.
IP Address • IP Address: A unique address that identifies a device (like a computer or phone) on the internet or a local network. • It contains location information and makes devices accessible for communication. • Version of IP: There are two main types: • IPv4: 32-bit addresses, typically written in decimal as four octets separated by dots (e.g., 192.0.2.146). • IPv6: 128-bit addresses written in hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
IP Address Notation: • Common formats include dotted decimal notation for IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) and colon-separated hexadecimal for IPv6.
Classes of IP Address • five classes of IP addresses: Class A, B, C, D and E. • Each class has a range of valid IP addresses. • The value of the first octet determines the class
Network Masks: • A network mask helps to identify which part of the IP address is used to define the network and which part is used for individual devices (hosts). • Example masks: • Class A: 255.0.0.0 • Class B: 255.255.0.0 • Class C: 255.255.255.0
IP Address Assignment and Usage (10 minutes) • Activity: • Group Activity: • Discuss the role of IP addresses in modern networks, including how they identify devices on the internet and local networks. • Compare IPv4 vs. IPv6: • IPv4 is widely used, but limited in address space (32-bit). • IPv6 provides a larger address space (128-bit) and is becoming more prevalent. • Discuss the purpose of network masks and how they divide IP addresses. • Hands-on Example: • Convert an IP address to binary notation: • For example, 110.11.5.88 becomes 01101110.00001011.00000101.01011000 (in binary).
Unit 3 Application Software
Unit outcomes • At the end of this unit, learners will be able to: • Create tables. • Organize and insert pictures, clip arts and shapes. • Explain how page numbers are formatted. • Analyze mathematical operators on data to perform addition and others. • Summarize functions such as filter, sort and rank. • Apply different effects to a cell and its contents. • Prepare and present a slide show. • Create a slide master.
3.1. Word Processing • Definition: Using a computer and Software to create, edit, save, and print documents. • Word Processor examples: Microsoft Word, Google Docs, LibreOffice Writer. • Uses: Writing reports, letters, resumes, etc. • how to open Microsoft Word: • Start Menu > Microsoft Word > New Blank Document.
Creating a Table • A table organizes data into rows (horizontal) and columns (vertical). • Cells are where rows and columns meet. • Uses of tables: Organizing data, creating calendars, invoices, etc. • To create a table: • Using Drag Method: • Insert > Table > Drag to select number of rows and columns. • using the Insert Table Dialog Box: Allows you to manually set the number of rows and columns. • Insert > Table > Insert Table > Enter Columns and rows values. • using the Draw Table tool: Allows freehand drawing of rows, columns, and cells using pencil tool. • Insert > Table > Draw Table • Using Quick table: Preformatted tables like calendars and lists. • Insert > Table > Quick Tables
Formatting Tables • Table Styles: Apply colors, borders, and shading.Resizing rows and columns using Ribbon, Ruler, or Properties.
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx
G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx

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G10 IT (2)gvvxxvxghgfjsfsghgjhgjuytujhgjghggh.pptx

  • 1.
  • 2.
    Course outline • UNIT1 : ORGANIZATION OF FILES • UNIT 2 : COMPUTER NETWORK • UNIT 3 : APPLICATION SOFTWARE • UNIT 4 : IMAGE PROCESSING AND MULTIMEDIA • UNIT 5 : INFORMATION AND COMPUTER SECURITY • UNIT 6 : FUNDAMENTALS OF PROGRAMMING
  • 3.
  • 4.
    1.1. Introduction • Revisionfrom Grade 9 • A file stores a data which can be a document, a picture, text, video, audio, etc. • A file has different icons in a computer. • A folder, which is also called a directory, is a container of files. • A folder helps us to organize related files together.
  • 5.
    1.2 File Management •In Windows operating system, the primary way of interacting with files and folders is through the File Explorer(Win+E) application • File Explorer enables you to create, view, rename, delete and search files and folders in computer. • File management is the process and act of creating an organized structure in which you store information for easy retrieval. Disk A physical storage medium that holds data. It can be internal or external and is often portable. Hard Disk (HDD) – Stores files and system data; DVD – Holds movies. Drive A hardware device that reads, writes, or provides access to a disk. C: Drive – The primary storage drive in a computer; USB Drive. Driver Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware devices like drives. Printer Driver – Enables a computer to interact with a printer; GPU Driver.
  • 6.
    1.3 Storage Drives OneDriveand Google drive are cloud-based drives on which files are stored. Disk A physical storage medium that holds data. It can be internal or external and is often portable. Hard Disk (HDD) – Stores files and system data; DVD – Holds movies. Drive A hardware device that reads, writes, or provides access to a disk. C: Drive – The primary storage drive in a computer; USB Drive. Driver Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware devices like drives. Printer Driver – Enables a computer to interact with a printer; GPU Driver.
  • 7.
    File Name Extension •A file extension is a three- or four-letter identifier found at the end of a file name being followed by a period. The extension tells you about the characteristics of a file and its use. • Examples of file extensions are: • image uses the .jpg or .jpeg extension (for example, image.jpg). • A Word document uses the .docx extension, or .doc for older versions (for example, CoverLetter.docx). • An audio file uses the .mp3 extension (for example, song.mp3). • An Excel spreadsheet uses the .xlsx extension, or .xls for older versions (for example, budget.xls). • File extensions are used by an operating system to identify what applications are associated with a particular file type. • In other words, a file extension specifies an application that opens the file when you double-click on it • An operating system is a software program required to manage and operate computing devices like smart phones, tablets, computers and supercomputers (WINDOW, UNIX, LINUX, ANDRIOD )
  • 8.
    • Home work: •Discuss other format of file such as image files, video,
  • 9.
    Home work Answers FileFormat Extension Name Meaning Type Associated Applications Common Uses JPEG (.jpg) Joint Photographic Experts Group Image Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Windows Photos Photographs, web images; supports lossy compression PNG (.png) Portable Network Graphics Image Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Windows Photos Web graphics, images with transparency; supports lossless compression GIF (.gif) Graphics Interchange Format Image/ Animation Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Web Browsers Animated images, simple graphics for web use BMP (.bmp) Bitmap Image Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop Uncompressed images, used for high-quality graphics TIFF (.tiff) Tagged Image File Format Image Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW High-quality images, often used in professional photography and publishing MP4 (.mp4) MPEG-4 Part 14 Video VLC Media Player, QuickTime, Windows Media Player Digital video files, widely used for streaming and storage AVI (.avi) Audio Video Interleave Video VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player Uncompressed or lightly compressed video; high-quality playback MKV (.mkv) Matroska Video Video VLC Media Player, KMPlayer, Plex Container format, supports multiple audio and subtitle tracks MOV (.mov) QuickTime Movie Video QuickTime, VLC Media Player Apple’s video format, commonly used for high-quality video on Macs MP3 (.mp3) MPEG Audio Layer III Audio VLC Media Player, iTunes, Spotify Compressed audio format, widely used for music and podcasts WAV (.wav) Waveform Audio File Format Audio VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player High-quality audio format, often used in professional audio production PDF (.pdf) Portable Document Format Document Adobe Acrobat, Foxit Reader Document format for text, images, and graphics, widely used for sharing files DOCX (.docx) Document Open XML Document Microsoft Word, Google Docs Word processing format, used for creating and editing text documents XLSX (.xlsx) Excel Spreadsheet Spreadsheet Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets Spreadsheet format, used for data analysis and organization
  • 10.
    1.5 File DirectoryStructure • the way an operating system shows its system and other types of files to the computer user. • Files are typically displayed in a hierarchical tree structure. • The first or the top folder (directory) in the structure is called the root directory. • root directory contains all other folders or files in the drive. A directory contained inside another directory is called a subdirectory. • parent and child are often used to describe the relationship between the directory and the subdirectory. • the root directory of the main partition on a computer is usually C:. The root folder of a DVD or CD drive might be D:. • A folder called a directory a tool for arranging files on a disk.
  • 11.
    1.5.1 Directory Pathor File Path • Is used to locate a file or a directory in a computer • The slash () is used to delimit names in the sequence. • Can be • Absolute : complete path starting from root directory (e.g., C:). • E.g. C:userssaramusicclick.mp3 • Relative : relative to current working directory • uses .. to go up a directory or or specifies only the folder structure from the current directory. • Example 1: ..DocumentsProjectsfile.txt • This goes up one directory and then enters the DocumentsProjects folder to find file.txt. • Example 2: Imagespicture.jpg • If the current directory is C:UsersUsernameDocuments, this will look for picture.jpg inside the Images folder within Documents.
  • 12.
    1.6 File Conversion •is the process of taking a file of one format and changing it into another. • Usage: file incompatibility and make uneditable word documents by changing it to pdf • A file converter is software that converts a document from one file type to another. E.g. FoxitPDFEditor, PDF to Word Converter etc
  • 13.
    1.7 File Importingand Exporting • File import is the process of moving files or data used in one program to another. • E.g. import a A comma-separated values (CSV) file into an Excel spreadsheet. • A file export is a process of moving information from a program into a file. • E.g. export a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to a CSV file. • E.g2 Open any word document and use save as or export options to convert it into PDF, Plain text, or any other options that appear in the pop-down menu.
  • 14.
    1.8 Saving andOpening Files • you can also easily change the file format when saving a file • When you save a file in any application program, the application saves the files using the default file format of a program. • When you open a file in Windows, it will usually open in the default application for that type of file.
  • 15.
    1.9 File Backupand Recovery • Backup is the process of creating and storing copies of data to protect primary data loss and failure caused due to HW & SW failur, virus, accidental deletion etc. such as photos, health records, assignments, academic records and other credentials. • It can be saved to an external storage device or the cloud. • A proper backup copy is stored in a separate system or medium, such as tape. • How to Backup Files • StartSettingsUpdate and SecurityBackupremovable drive file start to be backuped in removable disk • Recovery and Restoring: is the process of returning a lost, stolen or damaged data to their original conditions or to move to new location
  • 16.
    1.10File Compression • Filecompression(file ziping) is the process of reducing logical size of a original file to save disk space for easier and faster transmission over a network or the Internet. • To zip (compress) a file or a folder • right-click the file or the folder to be compressed Send toCompressed (zipped) folderA new zipped folder with the same name is created • popular compression tools are WinRAR, WinZip and 7zip. • To Unzip File to extract files from zip folder • right-click on zip folder Select Extract to select extract to “folder name”extracted folder with same and location appear
  • 17.
    1.11 Deleting aFile • File deletion is the removal of a file from a computer’s file system. • Recycle Bin is the location where deleted files or folders are temporarily stored in a computer. • To delete a files/ a folder/s • Select files/foldersRight clickchoose delet • Select files/folderspress delete key • Select files/folders drag it to the desktop’s Recycle Bin icon. • Select files/foldersshift key and hit the Delete key when you want to delete a file to prevent it from going to the Recycle Bin.
  • 18.
    1.12 Restoring DeletedFile from Recycle bin • Go to recycle bineselect files/folders to be restoredright clickcoose restorefile/folder restored on original location • Or simply double click it from recycled bin it will be restored • NB: if file is not found in recycle bin it is removed permanently and restoring needs 3rd party software such as Easeus recovery sofware
  • 19.
    Laboratory 01 1. Creatingand Managing Folders (File Directory Structure) create a new folder named "Grade10_Lab“ under root directory. Inside "Grade10_Lab", create three subfolders named "Images", "Documents", and "Backup". 2. Creating and Saving Files (File Extensions and Naming) Open Notepad and type "This is a sample text document for our lab.“, and Save the file in the "Documents" folder as "Sample.txt". Using Paint, create a simple drawing and save it in the "Images" folder as "Drawing.jpg". 3. File Conversion Create a word file with similar content and Save the Word file as "Sample.docx" in the "Documents" folder. Save it as pdf using save as commands 4. File Importing and Exporting Import the image "Drawing.jpg" into a Word document and save it 5. File Backup and Recovery • StartSettingsUpdate and SecurityBackupadd drive such as removable drive or a network location (External drive is recomended) file start to be backuped in removable disk • Or simply Copy the entire "Documents" folder, Paste it into the "Backup" folder to create a backup. • In addition show them how to backyp in onedrive(up to 5 Gb free) and google drive 6. File Compression • Select the "Images" folder., Right-click and choose "Send to > Compressed (zipped) folder". • Extract it to desktop 7. Deleting and Restoring Files • Delete the "Sample.txt" file by right-clicking and choosing "Delete". , Open the Recycle Bin and locate "Sample.txt". • Right-click the file in the Recycle Bin and select "Restore"., Verify the file is back in the "Documents" folder.
  • 20.
    Chapter Two: COMPUTERNETWORK • At the end of this unit, learners will be able to: • Explain transmission media. • Describe telecommunications network. • Explain mobile and cellular communications. • Analyze satellite networks. • Discuss data communication. • Conceptualize the use of Internet protocols (IP).
  • 21.
    2.1. Overview • ComputerNetwork is a connection of two or more computers either through wired or wirelesly for data teansmisson and resource sharing • In addition to wired /wireless midum protocol is needed for different computers to agree on the same rule • Components of network from G9 • End device • Intermediary device • Medium • protocol
  • 22.
    2.2 Network Media(Transmission Media) • Medium is the physical path by which carry a message from sender to receiver • Can be wired or wireless
  • 23.
    2.2.1 Guided (Wired)Media • A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium • include • twisted-pair cable, • coaxial cable and • fiber-optic cable.
  • 24.
    Media Type CharacteristicsApplications Advantages Disadvantage s Connectors Signal Transmissio n Bandwidth Maximum Distance Common Use Case Wiring conventions: UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together without shielding, used in Ethernet networks per IEEE 802.3 standards LANs, telephone networks, DSL connections Cost-effective, easy to install, flexible, widely used Susceptible to electromagne tic interference (EMI), limited bandwidth RJ-45, RJ-11 Electrical signals Up to 1 Gbps (Cat6) Up to 100 meters (for Ethernet) Office networks, general- purpose cabling straight-through and crossover cables, affected by crosstalk and EMI STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Similar to UTP but with an additional metallic shield to block external interference Industrial environments , high- interference areas Improved noise immunity, reduced crosstalk More expensive and less flexible than UTP, more complex installation RJ-45 Electrical signals Up to 10 Gbps (Cat7) Up to 100 meters (for Ethernet) High- interference areas Combines cancellation and twisting techniques, used in fast Ethernet and data channels Coaxial Cable Central copper conductor with insulating layer, metallic shield, and plastic cover, available in thick and thin variants Cable TV, broadband internet, RF transmission High bandwidth, good noise isolation, durable Bulky, harder to install, susceptible to signal degradation over long distances BNC, F-type, N-type Electrical signals Up to 10 Gbps Up to 500 meters (for broadband) Cable TV, internet connections Types: thick coaxial (better noise immunity) and thin coaxial (less noise isolation) Fiber Optics Uses light pulses for data transmission through glass/plastic fibers, with core surrounded by protective layers High-speed data networks, undersea cables, long- distance communicati on Extremely high bandwidth, immune to EMI, secure, long-distance capability Expensive, delicate, specialized equipment needed SC, ST, MTP/MPO, MT-RJ Light signals Up to several Tbps Up to 100 km+ (with amplification) Backbone networks, large-scale communicati on Types: single-mode (longer distances) and multi-mode (shorter distances)
  • 25.
    Media Type Characteristics Applications AdvantagesDisadvantages Antennas/ Devices Signal Transmissio n Frequency Range Maximum Distance Common Use Case Additional Concepts Radio Waves Electromagneti c waves with frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz; omnidirectiona l AM/FM radio, TV broadcasting, maritime communication , cordless phones Can propagate long distances, easy to set up, suitable for multicasting Susceptible to interference, less secure, limited bandwidth compared to higher frequencies Omnidirectiona l antennas (e.g., dipole, whip) Omnidirecti onal transmission 3 kHz to 1 GHz Several kilometers (depending on power) Broadcasting (radio and TV), walkie-talkies Types: ground, sky, and line-of- sight propagation; impacted by interference from similar frequencies Microwav es High-frequency radio waves (1- 300 GHz), unidirectional, requiring line- of-sight transmission Cellular communication , satellite links, wireless LANs High bandwidth, suitable for point-to-point communication , less interference than radio waves Requires direct alignment of antennas, affected by obstacles, expensive equipment Unidirectional antennas (e.g., parabolic dish, horn) Line-of-sight transmission 1 GHz to 300 GHz Up to 30-40 km (terrestrial), thousands of km (satellite) Mobile networks, satellite communication s Devices must be elevated to avoid obstructions; can focus signals into narrow beams Infrared Waves Electromagneti c waves with wavelengths longer than visible light; require line-of- sight Remote controls, short- range communication , data transfer between devices Immune to electromagneti c interference, secure over short distances Cannot penetrate walls, limited range, affected by ambient light Infrared transmitters and receivers Direct transmission between devices 300 GHz to 400 THz A few meters Remote controls, short- range wireless devices Used in sensor technology, affected by obstacles and sunlight
  • 26.
    Key Concepts Explained: •Propagation Methods: Radio waves can travel via ground propagation (hugging the Earth’s surface), sky propagation (reflected from the ionosphere), and line-of-sight propagation (straight transmission from antenna to antenna). • Antenna Types: • Omnidirectional: Sends/receives signals equally in all directions; useful for broadcasting. • Unidirectional: Focuses signals in a specific direction; essential for long-distance, point- to-point communication. • Advantages of Wireless Media: Offers flexibility, supports mobility, and is faster to deploy compared to wired media. However, it is more susceptible to interference and security issues.
  • 27.
    2.3.Telecommunication • Telecommunications refersto long-distance communication of information (voice, data, text, images, audio, and video) over networks using common carriers like radio, television, and telephone. • Example services: Telephone, video conferencing, email, and the Internet. • Modern businesses rely on telecommunications to operate 24/7 globally.
  • 28.
    Telecommunications System Components: •Hardware: Computers, modems, and other communication processors. • Communications Media: • Wireline Media: Twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, fiber optics. • Wireless Media: Radio, microwave, infrared, satellite. • Communications Network: Links between devices. • Signal or message to be communicated which can be audio, video, etc • Communications Processors: Devices like modems, multiplexers, controllers. • Communications Software: Controls transmission processes. • Providers: Entities offering communication services (e.g., Ethio Telecom). • Protocols: Rules for information transfer
  • 29.
    Analog vs. DigitalSignals • Signal is Electromagnetic representation of data which can be • Analog Signals: Continuous waves (e.g., voice or sound). • Digital Signals: Discrete pulses representing data as 1’s and 0’s.
  • 30.
    Advantages of DigitalSignals 1.Less affected by noise. 2.Easier to amplify over long distances. 3.Digital signals are more reliable and preferred for modern systems.
  • 31.
    Importance of Telecommunications: •Reduces communication time and enables remote education and business. • Applications include telephony, email, instant messaging, and video conferencing. • Facilitates global collaboration and problem-solving. • Telecommunications have transformed education, business, and everyday communication
  • 32.
    2.4. Mobile Communications •Mobile Communication is the use of wireless technology to communicate over distances without physical connections (wires or cables). • Saves time and effort, making communication convenient and life easier. • Examples: Bluetooth, WLAN, cellular networks.
  • 33.
    Bluetooth Network • Definition:A short-range wireless technology that replaces cables for connecting devices. • Key Features: • Operates in the ISM band (2.4 GHz). • Devices pair to establish a connection. • Common uses: Headsets, file sharing, and device interconnectivity. • Advantages of Bluetooth: • No physical connection needed. • Low power consumption. • Easy setup for device pairing.
  • 34.
    Wireless Local AreaNetwork (WLAN) • Definition: A communication system using radio frequencies to connect devices within a localized area. • Key Features: • Offers flexibility for mobility. • Can extend or replace a wired LAN. • Requires an Access Point (AP) to bridge wireless traffic into a wired LAN. • WLAN Standards: • Based on IEEE 802.11 standards, marketed under the Wi-Fi brand. • Current speeds up to 11 Mbps; moving towards high- speed WLANs.
  • 35.
    Role of AccessPoints (APs) • APs act as bridges between devices and wired networks. • Overlapping APs can increase coverage and connectivity.
  • 36.
  • 37.
    Stabilization (10 minutes) •Activity: • Discuss the role of Bluetooth in everyday life and compare it with WLAN. • Students identify examples of WLAN in their school or community and explain their significance.
  • 38.
    2.5. Cellular Network •A cellular network is a radio network divided into small areas called cells, each served by a base station (BS). • Purpose: Facilitate communication between mobile units or between a mobile and stationary unit.
  • 39.
    Key Components 1.Base Station(BS): 1. A fixed transceiver responsible for connecting mobile devices within its cell. 2. Controlled by a Mobile Switching Center (MSC). 2.Mobile Switching Center (MSC): 1. Connects base stations to the main telephone network. 2. Manages call routing, tracking, and billing.
  • 40.
    How It Works •Tracking and Handoff: • As users move between cells, the system transfers their connection from one base station to another. • Cellular Coverage: • Each cell’s size depends on its environment: smaller cells in cities, larger in rural areas.
  • 41.
  • 42.
    2.6. Satellite Networks •Combination of nodes including satellites, earth stations, and end- user devices. • Use radio waves for communication. • Advantages: Can provide connectivity in remote areas without the need for ground-based infrastructure.
  • 43.
    Components of aSatellite System: • Earth Station: Communicates with satellites. • Uplink: Signal sent from Earth to the satellite. • Downlink: Signal sent from the satellite to Earth. • Transponder: Integrated receiver and transmitter in the satellite.
  • 44.
    Categories of Satellites: •Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO): Stays fixed relative to the Earth, used for TV and weather monitoring. • Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Used for GPS systems. • Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Used for satellite phones and some internet services.
  • 45.
    Advantages of SatelliteSystems: • High-quality communication in remote areas. • Broadcasting and point-to-point communication.
  • 46.
    Data communication • Exchangesof data/information/instruction between two or more devices over wired or wireless medium • The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on four fundamental characteristics: 1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. 2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. 3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. 4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
  • 47.
    Components of Datacommunication A data communication system has 5 components Message: the information to be communicated (text, numbers, pictures, sound, video - or combinations) Sender: the device - computer, video camera, … Receiver: still the device Medium: the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver Protocol: the set of rules that govern data communications; an agreement between the communicating devices
  • 48.
    Simplex mode o Datacan only travel in one direction. o Tv broadcasting 48 Half duplex mode oData can pass in both directions, but at a different time e.g. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radio system Full Duplex mode o Data can pass in both directions at the same time/simultaneously. operates like a two-way, two-lane street. o e.g. A telephone conversation • 3 mode: the manner in which data is sent over the underlying medium Modes of Transmission 02/01/2025
  • 49.
    2.7 Internet protocol •Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that govern the format of data sent over the internet or a local network. • It is essential for the communication between devices across networks.
  • 50.
    IP Address • IPAddress: A unique address that identifies a device (like a computer or phone) on the internet or a local network. • It contains location information and makes devices accessible for communication. • Version of IP: There are two main types: • IPv4: 32-bit addresses, typically written in decimal as four octets separated by dots (e.g., 192.0.2.146). • IPv6: 128-bit addresses written in hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
  • 51.
    IP Address Notation: •Common formats include dotted decimal notation for IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) and colon-separated hexadecimal for IPv6.
  • 52.
    Classes of IPAddress • five classes of IP addresses: Class A, B, C, D and E. • Each class has a range of valid IP addresses. • The value of the first octet determines the class
  • 53.
    Network Masks: • Anetwork mask helps to identify which part of the IP address is used to define the network and which part is used for individual devices (hosts). • Example masks: • Class A: 255.0.0.0 • Class B: 255.255.0.0 • Class C: 255.255.255.0
  • 54.
    IP Address Assignmentand Usage (10 minutes) • Activity: • Group Activity: • Discuss the role of IP addresses in modern networks, including how they identify devices on the internet and local networks. • Compare IPv4 vs. IPv6: • IPv4 is widely used, but limited in address space (32-bit). • IPv6 provides a larger address space (128-bit) and is becoming more prevalent. • Discuss the purpose of network masks and how they divide IP addresses. • Hands-on Example: • Convert an IP address to binary notation: • For example, 110.11.5.88 becomes 01101110.00001011.00000101.01011000 (in binary).
  • 55.
  • 56.
    Unit outcomes • Atthe end of this unit, learners will be able to: • Create tables. • Organize and insert pictures, clip arts and shapes. • Explain how page numbers are formatted. • Analyze mathematical operators on data to perform addition and others. • Summarize functions such as filter, sort and rank. • Apply different effects to a cell and its contents. • Prepare and present a slide show. • Create a slide master.
  • 57.
    3.1. Word Processing •Definition: Using a computer and Software to create, edit, save, and print documents. • Word Processor examples: Microsoft Word, Google Docs, LibreOffice Writer. • Uses: Writing reports, letters, resumes, etc. • how to open Microsoft Word: • Start Menu > Microsoft Word > New Blank Document.
  • 58.
    Creating a Table •A table organizes data into rows (horizontal) and columns (vertical). • Cells are where rows and columns meet. • Uses of tables: Organizing data, creating calendars, invoices, etc. • To create a table: • Using Drag Method: • Insert > Table > Drag to select number of rows and columns. • using the Insert Table Dialog Box: Allows you to manually set the number of rows and columns. • Insert > Table > Insert Table > Enter Columns and rows values. • using the Draw Table tool: Allows freehand drawing of rows, columns, and cells using pencil tool. • Insert > Table > Draw Table • Using Quick table: Preformatted tables like calendars and lists. • Insert > Table > Quick Tables
  • 59.
    Formatting Tables • TableStyles: Apply colors, borders, and shading.Resizing rows and columns using Ribbon, Ruler, or Properties.

Editor's Notes

  • #5 Drive is a hardware component of a computer which stores files and folders, the operating system, data, and programs. A driver is software code that enables one or more hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s operating system
  • #6 Drive is a hardware component of a computer which stores files and folders, the operating system, data, and programs. A driver is software code that enables one or more hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s operating system Drive is a hardware component of a computer which stores files and folders. Drive can be fixed and removable. Fixed drives are found within a computer while removable drives are portable and plugged externally. This PC section of Window Explorer navigation part contains all drives mounted on the computer.
  • #19 Materials Needed: Computers with Windows 7 or 10 Access to basic applications (Notepad, Paint, Microsoft Word)
  • #25 Bluetooth uses ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio waves (2.4 gigahertz which is micro wave spectrum Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band, which is part of the microwave spectrum. While Bluetooth uses radio waves for communication, it falls within the microwave frequency range (typically 1 GHz to 100 GHz), making it technically a microwave-based technology. To clarify: Radio waves cover a broad spectrum of frequencies (30 Hz to 300 GHz). The microwave range is a higher frequency subset of the radio spectrum, typically starting from 1 GHz to 30 GHz. In simpler terms: Bluetooth uses microwaves, which are a specific type of radio wave. Summary for Bluetooth: Frequency band: 2.4 GHz (microwave spectrum). Type of signal: Short-range wireless communication using microwaves.
  • #41 1G (Analog): Basic voice communication. 2G (Digital): Improved voice quality and introduced SMS. 3G: Enhanced data services (Internet). 4G: High-speed data transmission and seamless global connectivity. 5G: Emerging with higher capacity and speed.
  • #46 Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
  • #48 Half duplex Data can pass in both directions, but at a different time Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa e.g. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radio system Full duplex Each communicating device can receive and send message at the same time/simultaneously.