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Foundations and Practical Applications of Climate Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance (CDRFI) with Civil Society Engagement

Comprehensive training on CDRFI concepts, instruments, risk management strategies, and the role of civil society in climate adaptation and disaster resilience.

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Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Abraham Lebeza MEL Expert Email:- lebezaalemu@gmail.com
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Foundations of Climate and Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance (CDRFI) and Impactful Civil Society Engagement Module 1: An introduction to climate disaster risk finance and insurance Module 2: Climate Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance in practice Module 3: CDRFI integration in national policy frameworks and CSO advocacy Module 4: CSO Engagement and advocacy strategies at the regional and international levels Module 5: CDRFI potential benefits, limitations, and challenges
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Foundations of Climate and Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance (CDRFI) and Impactful Civil Society Engagement Module 1: An introduction to climate disaster risk finance and insurance
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services  Resilience has multiple meanings. Within BRACED, it is understood to be the ‘ability to anticipate, avoid, plan for, cope with, recover from and adapt to (climate related) shocks and stresses’ (DFID, 2014a). The father of resilience thinking, C.S. Holling, understood it to be ‘the persistence of relationships within a system; a measure of the ability of systems to absorb changes of state variables, driving variables, and parameters, and still persist’ (Holling, 1973).  And within the UN system it is thought of as ‘the capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing, in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure’ (UNISDR, 2005). https://www.braced.org/
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services 3.1 Adaptive capacity Adaptive capacity is the ability of social systems to adapt to multiple, long-term and future climate change risks, and also to learn and adjust after a disaster. It is the capacity to take deliberate and planned decisions to achieve a desired state even when conditions have changed or are about to change. This includes the ability to ‘react to evolving hazards and stresses [well in advance] so as to reduce the likelihood of the occurrence and/or the magnitude of harmful outcomes resulting from climate-related hazards’ (Malone, 2009: 6). Adaptive capacity also includes the ability to take advantage of a disturbance and to ‘build or bounce back better’ (Manyena et al., 2011), as well as learning from the legacy of recurring shocks and stresses. This ability to recover in such a way as to reduce vulnerability to future events is vital to the notion of adaptive capacity. Without it, communities often get stuck in risk traps and recurring cycles of vulnerability (Becchetti and Castriota, 2011).
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services 3.2 Anticipatory capacity Anticipatory capacity is the ability of social systems to anticipate and reduce the impact of climate variability and extremes through preparedness and planning. Anticipatory capacity is seen in proactive action before a foreseen event to avoid upheaval, either by avoiding or reducing exposure or by minimising vulnerability to specific hazards (Kellett and Peters, 2014). This is in contrast with the more ‘reactive’ actions that take place after a disturbance has been felt (assuming the community in question has not been overwhelmed to the point of collapse) (Levine et al., 2011).
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services 3.3 Absorptive capacity The ability of social systems to absorb and cope with the impacts of climate variability and extremes is known as ‘absorptive capacity’. It refers to the ability of social systems, using available skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions, emergencies or disasters (Hudner and Kurtz, 2002). While anticipatory capacity comes into play before a shock or stress, absorptive capacity is exercised during and after a disturbance has occurred to reduce the immediate impact on people’s livelihoods and basic needs. In conceptual terms, it is concerned principally with ‘functional persistence’ – that is, the ability of a system to buffer, bear and endure the impacts of climate extremes in the short term and avoid collapse (death, debilitation and destruction of livelihoods) (Blaikie et al., 2003; Folke et al., 2010, Bene, 2012). In practical terms, this is most visible in the form of coping with the impacts of a disaster.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Module 2: Climate Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance in practice
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Traditional disaster response operates on a reactive cycle—relying on emergency aid and ad- hoc government budget reallocations after a crisis strikes. In contrast, Climate and Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance (CDRFI) is a proactive system that uses pre-arranged financial tools, such as parametric insurance, to release funds instantly based on measurable triggers.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Disaster Risk Management actors know in advance how much they will receive and by when Climate Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance When costs exceed available resources, access to additional funds needs to be negotiated after disaster strikes Traditional Disaster Response Risk ownership (who pays for disaster response) is ambiguous Traditional Disaster Response Available funds for response are known before disaster strikes Climate Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance Choose... Choose... Choose...
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services What are the different CDRFI instruments? https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/climate-disaster-risk-finance-insurance/ Examples of relevant CDRFI instruments include a wide range of insurance schemes, bonds for which repayment can be reduced or suspended in a disaster situation (catastrophe bonds) or pre-arranged loans from multilateral development banks with more favourable conditions than ad-hoc loans (contingent credit), among others. Pre-arranged finance therefore provides not only quick liquidity which increases response preparedness and hence indirectly contributes to risk reduction efforts, but also enables governments to estimate potential disaster-related expenditures more accurately. This predictability allows for better allocation of resources and improved long-term budget planning, as governments can allocate funds for disaster response and recovery in advance. To ensure adequate and rapid access to financial resources in the event of a disaster, it is crucial to establish CDRFI instruments beforehand. These financial instruments operate at different levels, including micro, meso, and macro. The following section provides a short overview with two tangible examples of climate risk insurance as a micro instrument and contingency credit as a macro instrument.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services What are the different CDRFI instruments? https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/climate-disas ter-risk-finance-insurance /  Climate risk insurance  Contingent credit
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Overview of CDRFI instruments Based on country-specific needs, the Global Shield is able to support: i) CDRFI instruments designed to provide rapid financial assistance to households and businesses to act early against and respond to climate and disaster-related losses. ii) Pre-arranged finance for governments, humanitarian agencies, and international and local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) for disaster preparedness and rapid response. https://www.globalshield.org/instruments-offer-financial-tools/
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Micro, meso and macro level instruments At the household and business level (meso and micro), these instruments comprise livelihood protection, social protection systems, livestock and crop insurance, property insurance, business interruption insurance, risk-sharing networks, and credit guarantees. At the level of (national and subnational) governments, humanitarian agencies and Civil Society Organisations (macro), the Global Shield supports the integrated development of instruments used to ensure that money is available when needed (money-in), and the processes to ensure that the money is spent on providing what affected individuals and communities need when they need it most (money-out). https://www.globalshield.org/instruments-offer-financial-tools/
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Money-in and Money-out Money-in: risk transfer products (e.g. insurance via regional risk pools and development insurers), contingent credit and grant mechanisms, contingency funds, pre- arranged finance (incl. forecast-based), or financial market instruments such as catastrophe bonds, etc. Money-out: shock-responsive social protection, early and anticipatory action protocols, contingency plans (incl. for restoring critical infrastructure), cash transfers, etc.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services What role does CDRFI play in adaptation and Climate Risk Management? https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/climate-disas ter-risk-finance-insurance /
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Risk layering and disaster risk financing strategy. (Source: Ghesquiere and Mahul (2010))
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services The risk layering approach The risk layering approach is a strategic framework that categorizes potential risks (such as financial, operational, or climate-related disasters) into different tiers based on their severity and frequency. It pairs each tier with the most cost-effective financial instrument or management tool
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Risk retention, external risk finance, and risk transfer are the three core strategies that organizations use to manage and absorb the financial impacts of unforeseen events. Balancing these three methods—often referred to as risk layering—ensures that an organization stays financially stable without overpaying for protection.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Climate and Disaster Risk Finance: A Mosaic of Instruments https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp-content/ uploads/2025/04/Disaster-Risk-Finance- Toolkit.pdf
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Catastrophe (Cat) Bonds and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (Cat DDOs) are both disaster risk financing instruments, but they serve different roles in financial planning. Cat bonds are used to transfer high-severity catastrophe risk to global capital markets, while Cat DDOs are contingent lines of credit used to provide immediate, short-term liquidity following a crisis. [ 1, 2, 3]
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown (Cat DDO) At a Glance • A contingent financing line that provides immediate liquidity following a natural disaster, and/or health-related event • Funds become available for disbursement after the drawdown trigger – typically the member country’s declaration of a state of emergency – is met • At approval a country must have an adequate macroeconomic policy framework and a satisfactory disaster risk management program in place (or under preparation), which the Bank will monitor periodically
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Catastrophe Bonds Catastrophe bonds (cat bonds) are specialized, high-yield debt instruments that allow insurance companies, reinsurers, and governments to transfer natural disaster risk to capital market investors. If a specified disaster occurs, the issuer keeps the bond’s principal to pay claims; if it does not, investors receive their principal plus high interest. https://napglobalnetwork.org/innovative-financing/para metric-catastrophe-bonds/
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Sovereign catastrophe bonds provide ex-ante financial protection for governments and are gaining interest as a risk management instrument, particularly in developing countries, to provide coverage to specific high severity, low frequency events.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Inventory of Innovative Financial Instruments for Climate Change Adaptation https ://napglobalnetwork.org/innovative-financing/par ametric-catastrophe-bonds /  Debt instruments  Financial risk management instruments and  Result-based financing instruments
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services CDRFI action Climate and Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance (CDRFI) action is structured into a five-phase risk-layering framework: 1. Prevention, 2. Risk Retention/Transfer, 3. Preparedness, 4. Emergency Response, and 5. Resilient Recovery. These stages involve designing financial tools to avoid, absorb, and recover from climate impacts while minimizing overall loss and damage
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Analyse laws, governance, institutional set up and market regulations for CDRFI instruments Enabling environment analysis Risk profile, hazard record, and vulnerabilities of different sectors feed into Catastrophe Risk modelling Risk assessment Assess available resources against the modelled loss for a selected return period Fiscal impact assessment Choose... Choose... Choose...
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Analyse laws, governance, institutional set up and market regulations for CDRFI instruments Enabling environment analysis Risk profile, hazard record, and vulnerabilities of different sectors feed into Catastrophe Risk modelling Risk assessment Assess available resources against the modelled loss for a selected return period Fiscal impact assessment Choose... Choose... Choose...
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services For lower levels of risk, risk retention is preferred as the opportunity costs of keeping those resources for disaster response don’t exceed the costs. When the severity is higher, and hence the financial cost increases, the opportunity cost becomes larger and it makes sense to use a combination of financial instruments. Risk transfer solutions are better catered for low frequency – high severity events, in which more resources are required.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Feature Traditional Disaster Response CDRFI (Climate & Disaster Risk Finance) Timing Reactive: Mobilizes funds after damage occurs (post- disaster). Proactive: Secures funds before a hazard strikes (ex-ante). Funding Source Ad-hoc emergency appeals, humanitarian aid, and sudden fiscal reallocation. Pre-arranged credit, sovereign insurance pools, catastrophe bonds, and risk-transfer mechanisms. Payout Speed Often slow; requires post-disaster assessments, international appeals, and bureaucratic approvals. Fast; uses objective, predetermined "triggers" (e.g., rainfall deficits) for instant payouts. Primary Goal Save lives and manage the immediate aftermath of the crisis. Minimize economic losses, protect public budgets, and build long-term climate resilience. Financial Impact Devastating to local/national economies and public debt. Safeguards national budgets and absorbs macro-level economic shocks.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Types of Policy Triggers Understanding the trigger mechanism is essential for estimating recovery speed and coverage adequacy:  Parametric Triggers: Payouts are made the moment an objective parameter is met or exceeded (e.g., wind speeds over 150 km/h in a hurricane, rainfall deficits below a certain threshold during a drought, or peak ground acceleration during an earthquake). [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] Forecast-based /  Anticipatory Triggers: Used in anticipatory action policies, these disburse funds before a disaster strikes based on advanced weather forecasting models (e.g., paying out to buy seeds when models show a high probability of seasonal crop failure). [1, 2]  Indemnity Triggers: Traditional triggers that require an adjuster to measure the actual physical damage or financial loss incurred by the policyholder before releasing funds.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services CDRFI (Climate and Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance) triggers are objective, pre-defined thresholds (e.g., rainfall amounts, wind speeds) that automatically release funds or payouts for emergency response without requiring lengthy damage assessments. [1, 2, 3, 4]
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Loss and damage
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Loss and damage  is the result of unsuccessful adaptation,  Enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and capacity-building is one of the key functions of the Warsaw International Mechanism
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Module 3:Integrating and Aligning CDRFI Into and With National Policy and Initiatives Unit 1: Integrating and Aligning CDRFI Into and With National Policy and Initiatives
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services National Adaptation Plans, or NAPs. NAPs are encompassing stakeholder processes aiming to tackle the effects of climate change. This means they affect all sectors in societies and economies. Therefore, the views of as many stakeholders as possible should be taken into account. NAPs are strategic and iterative processes in which learning is an essential part. And lastly, since NAPs aim at tackling the effects of climate change, they build from risk assessments and climate models. As we will see later with more detail, NAPs implementation enabling factors are capacity development, financing, appropriate institutional arrangements for adaptation, and information sharing. We highlight the main results from a report by the NAP Global Network and the InsuResilience Global Partnership, which analysed the presence of CDRFI in existing NAPs. Disaster costs are considered a key factor for climate adaptation, although not as much as one may have expected. Most NAPs consider adaptation and DRM jointly, and almost all see insurance as an adaptation tool, yet less than half consider social protection as a tool or perceive the insurance sector as an adaptation partner. Another interesting aspect of the analysis is that a majority of NAPs mentioned the need to strengthen data management as a strategic priority to improve their decision- making.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services What are NAPs? Strategic, government-led process which enables countries to identify and address their medium- and long-term priorities for adapting to climate change Facilitating the integration of climate change adaptation, in a coherent manner, into relevant new and existing policies, programs and activities within all relevant sectors and at different levels Objectives: to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, by building adaptive capacity and resilience NAPs build on analysis of current and future impacts of climate change, as well as assessing the vulnerability to these impacts The NAP process is an iterative adaptation policy cycle. It usually is considered to have four steps: assessment, planning, implementation, and M&E. The NAP process however is often also split into smaller steps or structured along the four elements proposed in the LEG's NAP technical guidelines (A: Lay the groundwork and address gaps; B: Preparatory elements; C: Implementation strategies; D: Reporting, monitoring, and review). Enabled by capacity development, financing, appropriate institutional arrangements for adaptation, and sharing of information across sectors, levels, and different types of actors Alignment with other relevant documents and processes such as NDCs, SDGs or the Sendai Framework for DRR As of 9 January 2024(opens in a new tab), 53 developing countries and one developed country have submitted their first NAPs to the UNFCCC. There are also some sectoral NAPs(opens in a new tab) submissions. More than 100 countries had submitted proposals to fund the NAP development process. .
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Different entry points or overlaps linking NAP processes and enabling factors with CDRFI. Financing For financing, CDRFI plays a catalytic role. As we know, adaptation investments are risky ventures, and linking them to CDRFI instruments can help mobilizing investments in green and resilient infrastructure, businesses or private credit by transferring this risk to financial markets. Moreover, CDRFI itself is a rather undesirable form of adaptation, undesirable because it addresses losses and damages, but anyhow it provides monetary resources to cover that adaptation aspect. Institutional Arrangements In relation to institutional setups, due to their financial resources, skills in analytics and risk prevention and linkages to the firms and families, insurance sector actors could be relevant players in national adaptation processes. Information Sharing Another factor is knowledge sharing, current CDRFI initiatives, such as the InsuResilience Global Partnership or the Financial Protection Forum by the World Bank, are championing climate risk knowledge management or training initiatives that can empower national adaptation actors. Capacity Development Finally, in capacity building, CDRFI related initiatives in open modelling and data or public good investments are expanding capacities and providing access to actors involved in national adaptation processes. This will certainly lead to improved decision-making beyond the CDRFI space. .
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Different entry points or overlaps linking NAP processes and enabling factors with CDRFI. Planning In the planning phase, risk assessments enable the identification of adaptation gaps, and certain analytical tools can compare the cost-effectiveness of various options or a combination of them, improving decision-making. Implementation At the implementation level, once a concrete adaptation need is identified and a CDRFI solution is in place, this should be linked to a disbursing mechanism implementing the adaptation solutions. As we already know, CDRFI can be deployed at the macro, meso and micro levels. CDRFI will be effective only when implemented in combination with other adaptation measures that address the lower risk layers, meaning the more frequent and less severe hazards. Monitoring & Evaluation At the monitoring and evaluation level, adaptation programmes have at least basic M&E systems to track progress and assess effectiveness. In this case, CDRFI can piggyback these M&E systems for its own benefit, to verify the impact of payouts or to evaluate if CDRFI instruments have had positive spillover effects on other adaptation measures.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services National DRM Institutional Frameworks Because it entails a great degree of intraministerial cooperation, disaster risk management at the national level is a complex process. Key to success is a clear allocation of roles at all governance levels, with accountability mechanisms and the participation of actors exposed to risk. The objective is the mainstreaming of risk management, up from government strategies down to daily operations, and also, a better coordination in emergency management. To succeed a great deal of leadership and commitment is required, which can be spurred by generalized population engagement. Post-disaster periods are usually conducive for initiating reforms, yet sustainability of the system depends on long-term incentives such as risk understanding and ownership, and ultimately aligning disaster risk management approaches with positive economic incentives, such as sectoral development or job creation.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services National DRM Institutional Frameworks There is not a unique and ideal institutional set up, as the figure shows, whatever works will depend on the political economy and the overall governance quality of a country. Yet, common to all set ups is the existence of a dedicated authority with strong legitimacy and executive power, some degree of the decentralization to the local level, with the corresponding resource allocation and adequate coordination mechanisms, such as information sharing platforms or coordination entities. Eventually, effective mainstreaming requires implementing risk management in the different economic sectors, so specialized units in risk management could be required at the line ministry level.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Various institutional arrangements are feasible depending on country governance preferences: A dedicated authority with strong legitimacy and executive power is needed Most important are information sharing, coordination and enforcement mechanisms Risk is experienced at the local level → context-specific and effective decision-making and implementation throughout the ICRM cycle Decision-making must be matched with adequate funding Risk is a cross-cutting phenomenon: DRM strategies need to be embedded in sectoral planning rather than developed in a silo E.g. planning related to informal settlements, land use, or natural resource management
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services DRM frameworks: key processes and outputs  Stakeholder engagement for planning and implementation:  Security forces, private sector, civil society, international organizations, research institutions, …  From risk assessments to Building Back Better  Risk assessments provide baseline information for developing prevention and contingency plans, these should be based both on scientific and traditional forms of knowledge.  Contingency plans detail procedures, roles and responsibilities for various actors involved in hazard response with the objective of providing a timely and targeted response that minimizes the negative impacts, as well as facilitating the recovery process  Local level plans should be developed by local actors following National Disaster Management Authorities guidelines and validation.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services DRM frameworks: key processes and outputs  Early-warning systems need to actively involve the communities at risk, raising risk awareness, and creating bidirectional hazard information flows from the national to local levels, thus ensuring a state of preparedness.  CDFRI strategy following a risk layering that provides sufficient financial resources in a timely and cost-effective manner through prearranged financial solutions.  DRM mainstreaming requires including risk assessments and management provisions in project planning, asset investments, developing capacities of public officials or implementing mass DRM training for general population.  Relief and recovery programs delivering support to affected people. Delivery is more effective when using previously existing structures that can be easily deployed or scaled up.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services An overview of actors in national DRM systems  Public sector  Technical advisors  NGOs / CSOs  Private sector  Development Agencies  International NGOs  Financial sector
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services An overview of actors in national DRM systems Public sector – Prime Minister / Minister / or other relevant authority : He/ She bears political responsibility in last instance for the management of climate disasters by steering and coordinating the functioning of the system. NDRMA: Responsible for DRM activities in line with government policy, legislative requirements and the strategic priorities. It ensures the correct functioning on an operational basis, as well as facilitates linkages in the system. While not implementing directly all activities, it should have a good overview of frontline DRM activities. Disaster Committee: Multidisciplinary and cross-sectional task force having regular meetings to evaluate the progress in the implementation of DRM strategies. During crises, this group manages and coordinates responses. The group is usually formed by line Ministry staff, but also by other relevant actors in different sectors (representatives from NGOs, private sector or security forces). Sub-national and local governments: Adapting DRM plans to their respective levels in accordance with superior frameworks. They have critical role in enabling community-based DRM. In countries with higher decentralization or for minor emergencies they may lead response operations together with NDRMA.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services CDRFI supporting roles in Disaster Risk Management policy frameworks at the national level. 1. Prevention-Firstly, At the prevention level, CDRFI risk assessments allow risk pricing, fostering risk ownership and eventually allowing governments to implement effective risk mitigation measures, which will lower the cost of CDRFI instruments. 2. Risk retention and transfer-In the risk retention and transfer phase, governments determine the mix of financial instruments to address various risk layers. 3. Preparedness-In the preparedness phase, linking CDRFI to early warning system and contingency plans can help to anticipate and address the early effects of disasters. 4. Response-In the response phase, predictable funding streams through CDRFI strengthen designated institutions for disaster response. 5. Recovery-Lastly, CDRFI payouts linked to social protection can help building the resilience of the poor and vulnerable in the long-term, and the application of build- back-better principles can lead to lowering the cost of accessing CDRFI instruments in the future.
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Disaster Resilient and Responsive Public Financial Management (DRR- PFM) The DRR-PFM (Disaster Resilient and Responsive Public Financial Management) agenda is a global framework developed by institutions like the World Bank to integrate disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate adaptation into a country's core financial systems. Its goal is to ensure governments can proactively fund resilience and rapidly, yet transparently, respond to disasters without compromising financial stability.  Climate impacts and their costs strain national budgets threatening fiscal stability in already vulnerable countries  Emergency response requires more flexible and quicker approaches in budgeting procedures  Financial management must be linked and harmonized with DRM procedures and structures  Financial management and DRM rely on synergistic sub-processes that can improve both (e.g. analytics, planning)
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Disaster Resilient and Responsive Public Financial Management (DRR- PFM) The DRR-PFM (Disaster Resilient and Responsive Public Financial Management) framework is an assessment tool designed to help governments prepare for, respond to, and recover from shocks without compromising fiscal stability. It is structured around eight key pillars developed by institutions like the World Bank
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Disaster Resilient and Responsive Public Financial Management (DRR- PFM) These eight pillars ensure that both ex-ante (proactive risk reduction) and ex- post (reactive recovery) capabilities are built directly into a nation's financial systems: https://www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/disaster-resilient-and-responsive- public-financial-management-assessment-tool
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Eight DRR-PFM pillars
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Unit 2: CSO Engagement Strategies for Policy Advocacy at the National Level
Mengol Training and Consultancy Services Module 4: CSO Engagement and advocacy strategies at the regional and international levels Module 5: CDRFI potential benefits, limitations, and challenges