Comprehensive Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology for Sports and Health Sciences

Comprehensive Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology for Sports and Health Sciences

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  U N IT 1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
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  Lecture Outline 01 Meaning, Definition& Importance Anatomy, Physiology, scope and relevance 02 Types of Anatomy & Anatomical Terms Gross, microscopic, regional, systemic & body movement terminology 03 Cell — Structure, Function & Types Organelles, cell division, specialised cells 04 Tissues — Classification & Functions Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous tissue 05 Body Systems — Overview 11 organ systems, structure and function
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  1 Meaning, Definition, Need& Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
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  What is Anatomy? Definition& Etymology Anatomy (Greek: ana = up, apart + temnein = to cut) — the scientific study of body structure and the spatial relationships among its parts. Ross & Wilson (12th ed.): "The study of the structure of the body and the physical relationships between its parts." Tortora & Derrickson: "The science of body structures and the relationships among them." Marieb & Hoehn: "A science that investigates the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another."
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  What is Physiology? Definition& Etymology Physiology (Greek: physis = nature + logos = study) — the science of the functions of the body and how its parts work individually and collectively. Ross & Wilson: "The study of the functions of the body parts and how they work together to support life." Tortora & Derrickson: "The science of body functions — how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities." Marieb & Hoehn: "The science that investigates the functions of living organisms and their parts."
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  Anatomy vs Physiology- The Inseparable Pair ANATOMY - Structure • Morphology of bones, muscles, organs • Location and spatial relationships • Macroscopic & microscopic levels • Studied via dissection, imaging • Answers: WHAT and WHERE PHYSIOLOGY - Function • Mechanisms of muscle contraction • Cardiovascular, respiratory dynamics • Homeostatic regulatory processes • Studied via experimentation & models • Answers: HOW and WHY ↔ Interdependent
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  Need & Importanceof Anatomy & Physiology Why BPES students must master these sciences 🏃 Sports Performance Knowledge of muscle architecture, joint mechanics and energy systems is foundational to designing effective training programmes. 🩺 Injury Prevention & Rehabilitation Identifying vulnerable anatomical structures and understanding tissue repair physiology guides safe return to sport. 🧪 Exercise Physiology Understanding cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic responses to exercise is the basis of fitness assessment and prescription. 📋 Physical Education Pedagogy Teachers require A&P knowledge to explain correct technique, posture and movement efficiency to students. 🔬 Research & Innovation Sports science research-from biomechanics to nutrition-relies on anatomical and physiological frameworks. ⚖️ Health & Wellness Promotion Understanding homeostasis, organ function and disease aetiology enables evidence- based health education.
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  2 Types of Anatomy& Anatomical Terms Related to Body Movements
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  Types of Anatomy Gross(Macroscopic) Anatomy Study of structures visible to the naked eye. Divided into Regional anatomy (body area e.g., thorax, abdomen) and Systemic anatomy (organ systems). Microscopic Anatomy Study of structures too small for the naked eye. Subdivided into Cytology (cells) and Histology (tissues). Developmental Anatomy Structural changes from fertilisation through old age. Embryology focuses on the prenatal period. Radiographic (Imaging) Anatomy Study using X-ray, MRI, CT scan and ultrasound. Critical for clinical diagnosis and sports medicine. Surface Anatomy External features of the body used to locate deeper structures. Key for physical assessment and palpation skills. Pathological Anatomy Structural changes caused by disease. Links anatomy to clinical medicine and sports injury pathology.
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  Body Planes &Axis Body Planes Sagittal Plane Divides body into Left & Right portions. Mid-sagittal (median) = equal halves. Frontal (Coronal) Plane Divides body into Anterior (front) & Posterior (back) portions. Transverse (Horizontal) Plane Divides body into Superior (upper) & Inferior (lower) portions. Oblique Plane Cuts at an angle; used in imaging and sectional anatomy. Body Axis Sagittal axis runs horizontally from the back (posterior) to the front (anterior). It is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and transverse planes. Frontal axis runs horizontally from side to side (left to right). It is formed by the intersection of the frontal and transverse planes. Vertical axis runs vertically from the bottom (inferior) to the top (superior). It is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and frontal planes.
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  Anatomical Directional Terms Standardterminology for precise anatomical description (Tortora & Marieb) Term Meaning Clinical Example Superior / Inferior Toward head / Toward feet The knee is superior to the ankle Anterior / Posterior Toward front / Toward back Sternum is anterior to vertebral column Medial / Lateral Toward midline / Away from midline Ulna is medial to radius Proximal / Distal Closer to origin / Farther from origin Femur is proximal to tibia Superficial / Deep Toward surface / Away from surface Skin is superficial to muscle Ipsilateral / Contralateral Same side / Opposite side Right arm and right leg are ipsilateral
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  Body Cavities Spaces thathouse and protect internal organs
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  Anatomical Terms -Body Movements (Part I) Joint movement terminology essential for exercise science Flexion Decreases angle between bones at a joint (bending) e.g. Bending elbow to curl a dumbbell Extension Increases angle between bones at a joint (straightening) e.g. Straightening knee in terminal phase of kick Hyperextension Extension beyond anatomical position; may risk injury e.g. Bending neck backward Abduction Movement of limb away from midline of body e.g. Raising arm laterally (star jump) Adduction Movement of limb toward midline of body e.g. Lowering arm back to side Circumduction Circular movement combining flex., ext., abd., add. e.g. Bowling arm action in cricket
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  Anatomical Terms -Body Movements (Part II) Rotational and special movements Rotation (Medial / Lateral) Pivoting bone around its longitudinal axis toward or away from midline e.g. Shoulder rotation in throwing Pronation / Supination Forearm rotation: palm down (pronation) or palm up (supination) e.g. Racket grip changes in tennis Inversion / Eversion Sole of foot turns inward (inversion) or outward (eversion) e.g. Ankle sprains — lateral inversion injury Dorsiflexion / Plantarflexion Foot dorsiflexes toward shin; plantarflexes away (pointing toes) e.g. Running gait cycle Elevation / Depression Body part moves superiorly (elevation) or inferiorly (depression) e.g. Shoulder shrug (elevation) / lowering Protraction / Retraction Anterior (protraction) or posterior (retraction) movement in transverse plane e.g. Scapular protraction in push-up
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  3 The Cell Structure, Functions& Types
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  The Cell -Fundamental Unit of Life Cell Definition: The smallest structural and functional unit of the body capable of performing all basic life functions independently. ~37.2 Trillion Cells in the human adult body 200+ Types Specialised cell types identified 10–100 µm Typical diameter range 3 Core Parts Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus General Characteristics of a Human Cell: • Surrounded by a selectively permeable plasma membrane • Contains cytoplasm with specialised membrane-bound organelles • Genetic information encoded in DNA housed within the nucleus • Carries out metabolism, growth, reproduction and responsiveness
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  Cell Organelles -Structure & Function Plasma Membrane Cell membrane is the selective barrier of the cell → it controls what enters and leaves → it also has receptor proteins. This is explained by the fluid mosaic model. Nucleus Nucleus is the control centre of the cell → it contains DNA → its pores allow materials to pass in and out → the nucleolus makes ribosomal RNA. Mitochondria Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell → it makes ATP through aerobic respiration → it has its own DNA and is abundant in muscle cells. Ribosomes Protein synthesis happens on ribosomes → free ribosomes make proteins for use inside the cell, while bound ribosomes on rough ER make secretory proteins. Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough ER makes and transports proteins → Smooth ER makes lipids, detoxifies harmful substances, and stores calcium. Golgi Apparatus Golgi apparatus is the post office of the cell → it modifies, packages, and sorts proteins for secretion or use inside the cell. Lysosomes Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes → they break down worn-out organelles, bacteria, and cell debris. Cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton is the cell’s support system → microfilaments help movement, intermediate filaments give strength, and microtubules help position organelles
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  Cell Division -Mitosis & Meiosis MITOSIS - Somatic Cell Division Interphase Cell grows; DNA replication occurs (S phase) Prophase Chromosomes condense; spindle forms; nuclear envelope dissolves Metaphase Chromosomes align at metaphase plate (cell equator) Anaphase Sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibres Telophase Nuclear envelopes reform; chromosomes decondense Cytokinesis Cytoplasm divides → two genetically identical daughter cells (2n) Result: Growth, repair, replacement of somatic cells MEIOSIS - Reproductive Cell Division • Two successive divisions (Meiosis I & II) • Produces 4 haploid (n) daughter cells • Occurs in gonads (testes, ovaries) • Crossing over in Prophase I → genetic variation • Produces gametes (sperm & ova) • Significance: Sexual reproduction and species diversity • Errors → chromosomal abnormalities (e.g. Trisomy 21) Result: 4 genetically unique haploid cells
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  Types of HumanCells - Structural Specialisation Structure reflects function - key principle Skeletal Muscle Cells (Fibres) Structure: Long, cylindrical, multinucleated, striated Function: Voluntary movement, force generation Cardiac Muscle Cells Structure: Branched, mono/binucleated, intercalated discs Function: Involuntary rhythmic heart contraction Smooth Muscle Cells Structure: Spindle-shaped, uninucleated, non-striated Function: Involuntary contraction in viscera, vessels Neurons (Nerve Cells) Structure: Cell body + axon + dendrites; myelin sheath Function: Electrical impulse generation & transmission Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Structure: Biconcave disc, anucleate, flexible membrane Function: O₂ / CO₂ transport via haemoglobin Epithelial Cells Structure: Closely packed, avascular, polarity Function: Covering/lining; secretion; absorption
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  4 Tissues Classification, Structure &Functions
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  Tissues - Definition& Primary Types Tissue Definition: A group of similar cells and the material surrounding them (extracellular matrix) that work together to perform a specific function 01 Epithelial Tissue Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands. Functions: protection, absorption, secretion, sensation. 02 Connective Tissue Most widespread; binds, supports, protects organs. Includes bone, cartilage, blood, adipose, fibrous tissue. 03 Muscle Tissue Specialised for contraction. Three types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth. Converts chemical to mechanical energy. 04 Nervous Tissue Generates and transmits electrical impulses. Neurons and supporting neuroglia (glial cells).
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  Epithelial Tissue -Structure, Types & Functions Characteristics: Avascular (no blood supply); cells tightly packed; rests on basement membrane; rapid mitosis for replacement; apical-basal polarity. Type Layers Cell Shape Location Function Simple Squamous 1 Flat Alveoli, capillaries, serous membranes Diffusion, filtration Simple Cuboidal 1 Cube-like Kidney tubules, small glands Secretion, absorption Simple Columnar 1 Tall column GI tract lining Absorption, secretion Pseudostratified Columnar 1 (appears layered) Column/ irregular Respiratory tract Mucus secretion, cilia sweep Stratified Squamous Multi Flat (surface) Skin, oral cavity, oesophagus Protection from abrasion Transitional Multi (distensible) Variable Urinary bladder, ureter Stretching to accommodate volume
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  Connective Tissue -Types & Functions Most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body Loose Connective Tissue • Areolar CT - 'packing material'; surrounds vessels, nerves, organs • Adipose CT - insulation, energy storage, organ cushioning • Reticular CT - framework of lymphoid organs, liver, bone marrow Dense Connective Tissue • Dense Regular CT - tendons, ligaments (collagen fibres parallel) • Dense Irregular CT - dermis, joint capsules (fibres multi-directional) • Elastic CT - aorta, vocal cords (elastic fibres predominate) Specialised Connective Tissue • Cartilage - Hyaline (articular surfaces), Fibrocartilage (menisci, IVDs), Elastic (ear, epiglottis) • Bone (Osseous) - compact & spongy; rigid support, mineral reservoir • Blood - Fluid CT; erythrocytes, leucocytes, platelets in plasma
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  Muscle Tissue &Nervous Tissue Muscle Tissue Skeletal Striated; voluntary; multinucleated; cylindrical fibres; fatigable Cardiac Striated; involuntary; mono/binucleated; branched; intercalated discs; autorhythmic; resistant to fatigue Smooth Non-striated; involuntary; spindle-shaped; uninucleated; visceral (sheets); slow sustained contraction Nervous Tissue Neurons (Nerve Cells) • Cell body (soma) - contains nucleus • Dendrites - receive impulses toward cell body • Axon - conducts impulses away; myelinated • Synapse - junction for impulse transmission • Types: sensory, motor, interneurons Neuroglia (Supporting Cells) • Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia (CNS) • Schwann cells, satellite cells (PNS) • 10× more numerous than neurons • Provide structural, metabolic support
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  5 Body Systems Structure, Functions& Interrelationships
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  The 11 OrganSystems of the Human Body Integumentary Protection, temperature regulation, sensory reception Skeletal Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, haematopoiesis Muscular Movement, posture, heat production Nervous Communication, control, integration of body functions Endocrine Hormonal regulation of growth, metabolism, reproduction Cardiovascular Transport of O₂, CO₂, nutrients, hormones, waste Lymphatic/Immune Fluid balance, immunity, fat absorption (lacteals) Respiratory Gas exchange (O₂ in / CO₂ out), pH regulation, phonation Digestive Ingestion, digestion, absorption of nutrients, elimination Urinary Filtration of blood; excretion of metabolic waste; fluid/electrolyte balance Reproductive Production of gametes; continuation of the species; hormone secretion
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  Skeletal System -Structure & Functions 206 bones in the adult human body. Divided into Axial (80 bones: skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage) and Appendicular (126 bones: limb girdles and limbs) skeletons. Functions • Support - framework for body; provides shape • Protection - skull (brain), vertebrae (cord), ribcage (heart, lungs) • Movement - levers for muscle attachment • Mineral storage • Hematopoiesis - red/white blood cell production in red bone marrow • Energy storage yellow marrow (adipose tissue) Bone Classification Long bones: Femur, humerus, tibia - levers for movement Short bones: Carpals, tarsals - stability with limited motion Flat bones: Skull, scapula, sternum - protect organs, muscle attachment Irregular bones: Vertebrae, hip bones - complex shape, mixed function Sesamoid bones: Patella - protect tendons from compression
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  Key Systems forExercise - Muscular, Cardiovascular & Respiratory Muscular System Structure: ~640 skeletal muscles; muscle fibres, tendons, connective tissue sheaths (epimysium, perimysium, endomysium) • Prime movers, antagonists, synergists, fixators • Three fibre types: Type I (slow oxidative), Type IIa (fast oxidative-glycolytic), Type IIx (fast glycolytic) • Functions: movement, posture, joint stability, heat production Cardiovascular System Structure: Heart (4 chambers, 4 valves), ~100,000 km blood vessels: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins • Cardiac output = HR × Stroke Volume • Systemic & Pulmonary circuits • Transport: O₂, CO₂, nutrients, hormones, immune cells, heat Respiratory System Structure: Upper airways: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx; Lower airways: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli; Respiratory muscles: diaphragm, intercostals • Tidal volume ~500 mL at rest; VC ~4.8 L average • External respiration (lungs) & Internal respiration (tissues) • During maximal exercise: ventilation rises from 12 to 120+ L/min
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  Remaining Body Systems- Structure & Function Overview Nervous System Structure: CNS (brain, spinal cord) + PNS (cranial, spinal nerves, autonomic) Function: Sensory input → integration → motor output; controls all body systems Endocrine System Structure: Ductless glands: hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads Function: Hormonal regulation: growth, metabolism, stress response, reproductive function Integumentary System Structure: Skin (epidermis + dermis), hair, nails, sweat & sebaceous glands Function: Protection, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, sensory reception, excretion Lymphatic/Immune System Structure: Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, bone marrow Function: Fluid homeostasis; specific & non-specific immunity; fat absorption Digestive System Structure: GI tract (mouth→anus) + accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder) Function: Mechanical/chemical digestion; nutrient absorption; waste elimination Urinary System Structure: 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Function: Blood filtration; urine formation; osmoregulation; acid-base balance Reproductive System Structure: Male: testes, vas deferens, prostate, penis; Female: ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, vagina Gamete production; hormone secretion; gestation (female); species continuation
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  Homeostasis - TheUnifying Principle of Physiology Homeostasis (Greek: homoios = same; stasis = standing still): The ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous changes in the external. Homeostatic Control System Receptor (Sensor) Detects change in the internal environment (stimulus) Afferent Pathway Sends information to the control centre Control Centre Integrates information and determines response (e.g. hypothalamus) Efferent Pathway Sends instructions to effector Effector Muscle or gland that carries out corrective response Feedback Mechanisms Negative Feedback Most common. Output opposes the input/stimulus. Restores normal range. E.g.: body temperature regulation; blood glucose regulation; blood pressure control. Positive Feedback Less common. Output amplifies stimulus. E.g.: childbirth (oxytocin surge), blood clotting cascade, action potential generation, breastfeeding (let- down reflex). Disruption of homeostasis = disease/injury
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  Levels of StructuralOrganisation From atom to organism - the hierarchy of the human body 1 Chemical Level Atoms (C, H, O, N, Ca, P) → molecules → macromolecules (proteins, DNA, lipids) 2 Cellular Level Smallest living units; 200+ cell types; organelles perform specific functions 3 Tissue Level Groups of similar cells + extracellular matrix; 4 primary tissue types 4 Organ Level Two or more tissue types performing a specific function e.g. heart, stomach, skin 5 Organ System Level Groups of organs with a common function e.g. digestive, cardiovascular system 6 Organismal Level All organ systems functioning together = the living human organism → → → → →
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  Review Questions -Self-Assessment Answer these before your next tutorial 1 Define anatomy and physiology. Explain with examples why neither can be fully understood without the other. 2 Distinguish between gross anatomy, histology, and radiographic anatomy. Give one practical application of each in sports science. 3 Draw and label the three body planes and five directional terms applied to the lower limb. 4 Describe the structure and function of the following organelles: mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. 5 Classify the four primary tissue types. For each, give two examples of where they are found in the body. 6 Name all 11 body systems and state the primary function of each. Which three systems are most challenged during maximal aerobic exercise? 7 Explain homeostasis using a negative feedback example relevant to exercise physiology. 8 Define and give a sporting example of: flexion, abduction, pronation, dorsiflexion.
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  References & RecommendedReading Primary Textbooks Ross, J., & Wilson, K. (2018). Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness (13th ed.). Elsevier. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (15th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2019). Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education.
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  Thank You Unit 1:Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Next Lecture: Unit 2 - The Skeletal System in Depth "Structure without function is a corpse; function without structure is a ghost." - Paraphrased, Tortora School of Physical Education & Sports · BPES Semester I