Chapter 3(1)

CHAPTER 3
HISTORY OF C LANGUAGE
 C language is a structure oriented programming language, was developed at Bell
Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie
 C features were derived from earlier language called "B" (BCPL language)
 C was invented for implementing UNIX operating system
 In 1978, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published the first edition “The C
Programming Language" and commonly known as K&R C
 In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to
provide a modern, comprehensive definition of C. The resulting definition, the ANSI standard, or
"ANSI C", was completed late 1988.
3.1 C STANDARDS
C89/C90 standard - First standardized specification for C language was developed by American
National Standards Institute in 1989. C89 and C90 standards refer to the same programming
language.
C99 standard - Next revision was published in 1999 that introduced new futures like advanced
data types and other changes.
C11 and Embedded C
C11 standard adds new features to C and library like type generic macros, anonymous structures,
improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It
also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with
C++.
Embedded C includes features not available in normal C like fixed-point arithmetic, named
address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing
Operating systems, C compiler, all UNIX application programs are written in C
It is also called as procedure oriented programming language
C language is reliable, simple and easy to use.
C has been coded in assembly language

3.2 FEATURES OF "C" LANGUAGE
 C is a Structured Programming Language and powerful language.
 C is a versatile Language (i.e.,) it has features of both Low Level Languages and High
Level Languages.
 C is an all purpose programming language. It is equally suitable for generating high level
application and low level application.
 C is a highly portable language. Source Program written in one computer can be
compiled, executed and run on another computer with less modification.
 C is platform independent. It can be executed on any type of computers.
 C is extensible. Users can develop program quickly with few mistakes. C language
encourages the users to write their own library function so that they can extend the features of
the language.
 It increases the readability of Program. Program can be modified without affecting the
other parts of a program.
 It is used in system programming. Compilers, packages, Operating System are written
using C. Application programs like word processors can also be developed using C language.
3.3 STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM
The structure of a C program is a protocol (rules) to the programmer, while writing a C program.
The general basic structure of C program is shown in the figure 3.1. The whole program is
controlled within main ( ) along with left brace denoted by "{" and right braces denoted by "}". If
we need to declare local variables and executable program structures are enclosed within "{" and
"}" is called the body of the main function. The main ( ) function can be preceded by
documentation, preprocessor statements and global declarations.
Figure 3.1 Structure of C program

 Documentations
The documentation section consist of a set of comment lines giving the name of the program, the
name and other details, which the programmer would like to use later. It is included in the first
line of a C program. It consists of comments. There are two types of comments. They are Single
line Comments and Multi line comments. Comments are used to give a meaningful name to a C
Program.
Single line comments are specified with two backslash // or /*' and ended with */ in a same Line.
Multi line comments are specified by a backslash (/) followed by an asterisk (*) symbol and
ended with asterisk symbol (*) followed by Backslash (/).
 Preprocessor Statements/ Link section/Header File section
The preprocessor statements begin with # symbol and are also called the preprocessor directive.
These statements instruct the compiler to include C preprocessors such as header files and
symbolic constants before compiling the C program. Header file consists of predefined function
definitions for frequently used functions. Some of the functions in C programs was already and
written, executed and stored in the header files. Whenever we need to use the particular function,
we should simply mention the name in the link section. Link section provides instructions to
compiler to link functions from system library.
Some of the preprocessor statements are listed below.
 Global Declarations
The variables are declared before the main ( ) function as well as user defined functions is called
global variables. These global variables can be accessed by all the user defined functions
including main ( ) function.
Used to declare functions, variables or symbolic constants globally. Two types of declaration are
allowed in C Language.
 Main ( ) section

The execution of C program starts from the main function. Every C program must have a main
function. It contains two parts. They are declaration part and executable part. Declaration part is
used to declare variables. Every variable must be declared before using it in C program.
Executable part contains statements which are building blocks of a program. They represent
instructions to the computer to perform a specific task (operations).
Declaration part and executable part must appear between opening '{' and closing braces ‘}'.
Opening brace specifies the beginning of C program and close brace specifies the logical end of
C program.
Rules:
Each and Every C program should contain only one main ( ).
The main ( ) function should be written in small (lowercase) letters and it should not be
terminated by semicolon.
All the statements of main function should be enclosed within left and right braces.
 User defined functions
These are subprograms, generally, a subprogram is a function and these functions are written by
the user are called user defined functions. These functions are performed by user specific tasks
and this also contains set of program statements. They may be written before or after a main ()
function and called within main () function. But generally we placed after the main function.
This is an optional to the programmer. It is called from the main function.
3.3 C Program Compilation
To compile a C program we need a compiler name and program files name. Assume our
compiler's name is cc and program file name is hello.c, give following command at Unix prompt.
$cc hello.c
This will produce a binary file called a.out and an object file hello.o in our current directory.
Here a.out is our first program which we will run at Unix prompt like any other system program.
If we don't like the name a.out then we can produce a binary file with our own name by using -o
option while compiling C program. See an example below
$cc -o hello hello.c
Now we will get a binary with name hello. Execute this program at Unix prompt but before
executing / running this program make sure that it has execute permission set. If we don't know
what is execute permission then just follow these two steps
$chmod 755 hello

$./hello
This will produce following result
Hello, World
3.4 C Character set
Each C program is a set of statements and each statement is set of different C
programming lexims. In C programming each and every character is considered as single lexim.
Character set denotes alphabet, digit or special character. Characters combine to form
variables. Characters in C are grouped into Letters, Digits, Special characters and White spaces.
Compiler generally ignores white space when it is not a part of string constant. White Space may
be used to separate words, but not used between characters of keywords or identifiers.
The character set in C Language can be grouped into the following categories.
Source Character Set
This character set is used to construct statements in a source program.
Alphabets A to Z and a to z
Digits 0 to 9
Special characters +,-,*,!,<,>,?, @, #. The others are listed below
in detail
Whitespaces Blank space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, new

line, form feed
Special Characters are listed below
Symbol Name Symbol Name
~ Tilde - Minus sign
! Exclamation Mark = Equal to sign
# Number sign { Left flower brace
$ Dollar sign } right flower brace
% Percentage sign [ Left bracket
^ Caret ] Right bracket
& Ampersand : Colon
* Asterisk “ Quotation mark
( Left Parenthesis < Opening angle bracket
(less than sign)
) Right Parenthesis ; Semicolon
_ Underscore > Closing angle bracket
(greater than sign)
+ Plus sign ? Question mark
| Vertical bar , Comma
Backslash . Period (dot)
‘ Apostrophe / Slash
@ At symbol
Execution Character Set
Execution characters are used at the time of execution. They are invisible and cannot be printed
or displayed correctly. They are always represented by a backslash() followed by a character.
They are also known as non graphic characters, symbols or escape sequences. Some of them are
given below
Symbols
Symbol Name Symbol Name
‘b’ Blank space 'f' Form feed
'n' Newline 'r' Carriage return
't' Horizontal tab 'v' Vertical tab
3.5 C Tokens
In C, program the smallest individual units are known as C Tokens. C has 6 types of Tokens.
They are

 Keyword
 Identifier
 Constant
 String
 Operators
 Special symbols
Figure 3.1 C Tokens
 Keywords
Keywords are pre-defined words in a C compiler. Each keyword is meant to perform a
specific function in a C program. Since keywords are referred names for compiler, they can’t
be used as variable name. They serve as building blocks of a c program
The following are the Keyword set of C language
auto extern sizeof signed break float static enum case for
struct char goto switch const if typedef continue int
union default long unsigned do register void else short
while double return volatile

 Identifiers
Identifier is a name given to program elements such as variables, functions, procedure,
arrays and soon.
Rules for Framing Identifier
 First character must be an Alphabet or Underscore ( _ ).
 Special characters and embedded commas are not allowed.
 First 31 characters are given high priority or preference.
 Keyword cannot be used as Identifier.
 There should not be any white space.
 Both uppercase and lowercase letters are permitted.
 The underscore character is also permitted in identifiers.
 Constant
Constants in C refer to fixed values that do not change during the executing of a program. C
Support several types of constants are listed below.
1. Numeric Constants
– Integer Constants
– Real Constants
2. Character Constants
Numeric Constants
 Integer Constants
An integer’s constant refers to a sequence of digits without decimal point. There are three
types of integer’s namely decimal, integers, octal integer and hexadecimal integer. It is normally
a whole number.
Examples: 125 -562 0 9635 +776
Embedded space, commas, and non-digit characters are not permitted between digits.
Below examples are illegal numbers.
Examples: 15 750 20,000 $6325
 Real Constants

Real Constants are otherwise known as Floating Point Constants. Real Constant consists of
decimal number, exponent or combination of both. Real constant consist of two forms. They are
Fractional form and Exponential form.
 Character constant
Character Constant is also known as single character constant.
Variable
Variable is a name given to Memory location in which data is stored. Variable acts as
value, which changes during the execution of program. Variable may take different value at
different times during execution.
The general format of any declaration
datatype v1, v2, v3, ……….. vn
where v1, v2, v3 are variable names. Variables are separated by commas. A declaration
statement must end with a semicolon.
Eg: int sum;
double average, mean;
Variable Assignment
It is another format of variable declaration. The general form is
data-type variable name [=value];
Here data type refers to the type of value used in the C program. Variable name is a valid
name. Square brackets [ ] denotes that the value may or may not be used or specified within the
program.
Eg: int a; (or) int a=10;
Here if the value of a is assigned 10 the value remains the same throughout the program.
If no value is specified then the value keeps on changing.

Simple Variable Assignment
To assign a single value to a variable ‘=’ equality operator is used. The syntax is
variable-name = value;
Eg: X=10; y=30;
Compound Variable Assignment
variable-name = expression;
This type of variable declaration can be used together with combination of characters,
numbers or an expression. Here ‘=’ equality operator is used.
Eg: Y=x+5; Z= ((x+1) (y-2)*x)
Declaring a variable as constant
Variable is declared as constant by using the keyword or qualifier ‘const’ before the
variable name. This can be done at the time of initialization.
Eg: const int class_size = 40;
Volatile Variable
A variable is volatile if the value gets changed at any time by some of the external sources.
Eg: volatile int num;
When we declare a variable as volatile the compiler will examine the value of the variable each
time it is encountered to see if an external factor has changed the value.
 Strings
A string is a collection of characters. Strings are always enclosed in double quotes as
"string_constant".
Strings are used in string handling operations such as,
 Counting the length of a string.
 Comparing two strings.

 Copying one string to another.
 Converting lower case string to upper case.
 Converting upper case string to lower case.
 Joining two strings.
 Reversing string.
Declaration
The string can be declared as follow
Syntax
char string_nm[size];
Example
char name[50];
String Structure
When compiler assigns string to character array then it automatically supplies null character
('0') at the end of string. Thus, size of string = original length of string + 1.
char name[7];
name = "TECHNO"
Example
/* A very simple c program printing a string on screen*/
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf("Hello Worldn");
return 0;
}
Output of above program:
"Hello World"

3.6 Operators
Operators are tokens used to combine values in an expression. Operator is a Symbol that
tells or instructs the Compiler to perform certain Mathematical or Logical manipulations
(Calculations). Operators are used in a program to work on data and variables. Operators in
general form a part of Mathematical or Logical expression.
Operators are generally classified into different types. They are described one below
another as follows.
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Conditional Operators
6. Special Operators
7. Bitwise operators
8. Increment and decrement operators
9. Unary operators
10. Equality operators
1. Arithmetic Operators
The operators used for basic arithmetic are =, +, -, *, and /.
Operator Meaning Details
+ Addition Performs addition on integer numbers, floating point numbers. The
variable name which is used is the operand and the symbol is
operator.
- Subtraction Subtracts one number from another.
* Multiplication Used to perform multiplication
/ Division It produces the Quotient value as output.
% Modulo It returns the remainder value as output.
Examples of arithmetic operators are
x + y x - y x * y x/y x%y

Here x, y are known as operands. The modulus operator is a special operator in C
language that evaluates the remainder of the operands after division.
/* Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators in C. */
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=9,b=4,c;
c=a+b;
printf("a+b=%dn",c);
c=a-b;
printf("a-b=%dn",c);
c=a*b;
printf("a*b=%dn",c);
c=a/b;
printf("a/b=%dn",c);
c=a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b=%dn",c);
return 0;
}
}
Output
a+b=13
a-b=5
a*b=36
a/b=2
Remainder when a divided by b=1

2. Relational Operators
Relational Operators are used to compare two same quantities.
The general form is
(exp1 relational operator exp2)
There are six relational operators. They are mentioned one below another as follows.
Operator Meaning Example
< is less than 5<3 returns false (0)
<=
>
is less than or equal to
is greater than
5<=3 return false (0)
5>3 returns true (1)
>= is greater than or equal to 5>=3 returns true (1)
= = is equal to 5==3 returns false (0)
!= is not equal to 5!=3 returns true(1)
3. Logical Operators
Logical Operators are used when we need to check more than one condition. It is used to
combine two or more relational expressions. Logical Operators are used in decision making.
Logical expression yields value 0 or 1 i.e., (Zero or One). 0 indicates that the result of logical
expression is TRUE and 1 indicates that the result of logical expression is FALSE.
Logical Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT
Logical AND ( && )

The result of the Logical AND operator will be TRUE If both value is TRUE. If any one
of the value is false then the result will be always False. The result is similar to basic Binary
multiplication.
Eg: a > b && x = = 10
The expression is true only if both expressions are true i.e., if a is greater than b and x is
equal to 10.
Logical OR ( || )
If any of the expression is true the result is true else false otherwise. The result is similar
to basic Binary addition.
The logical OR is used to combine 2 expressions or the condition evaluates to true if any
one of the 2 expressions is true.
Eg: a < m || a < n
It evaluates to true if a is less than either m or n and when a is less than both m and n.
Logical NOT ( ! )
It acts upon single value. If the value is true result will be false and if the condition is
false the result will be true. The logical not operator takes single expression and evaluates to true
if the expression is false and evaluates to false if the expression is true.
Eg (!a)
4. Assignment Operators
The Assignment Operator evaluates an expression on the right of the expression and
substitutes it to the value or variable on the left of the expression. The general form is
identifier = expression;
Eg: x = a + b;
Here the value of a + b is evaluated and substituted to the variable x. ‘=’ equal to is used in
Assignment operators. It is of two types. They are

(i) Simple assignment operator
In Simple assignment operator only one ‘=’ equal to operator is used. It is used to assign
a value to variable or expression. The general form is
identifier = expression;
Eg: y=35; x=ax+b-c;
(ii) Shorthand assignment operator
Shorthand assignment operator must be an arithmetic operator or bitwise operator. The
general form is
identifier <operator> = expression;
The operator must be an arithmetic operator or bitwise operator.
Operator Meaning Example
Simp. Assign
Example
Shorthand
+= Assign sum x = x + 1 x+ =1
-= Assign difference y = y - 1 y-=1
*= Assign product z=z*(x+y) z*=(x+y)
/= Assign quotient y=y/(x+y) y/=(x+y)
%= Assign remainder x=x%z x%=z
~= Assignone’s complement
<<= Assign left shift x = x << z x << = z
>>= Assign right shift
&= Assign bitwise AND y = y&x y&=x
|= Assign bitwise OR

^= Assign bitwise X - OR z = z^y z^=y
var=5 //5 is assigned to var
a=c; //value of c is assigned to a
5=c; // Error! 5 is a constant
5. Conditional Operators
Conditional Operator Ternary operator is also known as “Ternary operator”. The general
form of Conditional Operator is
(exp1)?(exp2):(exp3);
where exp1 is the condition which is to be checked and exp2 is the true value and exp3 is the
false value. If the condition in exp1 is true then statement in exp2 is executed and if the condition
in exp1 is false then statement in exp3 will be automatically executed.
Eg:
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x,y,z;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the value of a and b :”);
scanf(“%d %d”,&x,&y);
z=((x>y)?x:y);
printf(“The biggest value is %d”,z);
getch();
}
6. Special Operators
Special operators are known as separators or punctuators. Special operators are
Output:
Enter the value of a and b: 125 100
The biggest value is 125
Enter the value of a and b: 25 100
The biggestvalue is100

Ampersand ( & ) Braces ( { } ) Colon ( : ) Ellipsis ( … )
Asterisk ( * ) Brackets ( [] ) Comma ( , ) Hash ( # )
Parenthesis ( () ) Semicolon ( ; )
Ampersand ( & )
It is also known as address operator. It is specified before the identifier name. i.e. variable
name. It indicates memory location of the identifier.
It is denoted by ‘&’.
When used as a prefix to a variable name ‘&’ operator gives the address of that variable.
Example:
&n – It gives address on variable n.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10;
printf(“n value of n is : %d”,n);
printf(“n value of &n is : %u”, &n);
}
Output
value of n is : 10
value of of &n is : 1002
Asterisk ( * )

Asterisk ( * ) is also known as indirection operator. It is specified before identifier name.
It indicates creation of pointer variable. It is also a unary operator.
Braces ( { } )
The opening brace ( { ) and closing brace ( } ) specify the start and end of compound
statement in a function. Here semicolon ( ; ) is not necessary. Semicolon ( ; ) is used only in
structure declaration.
Brackets
Brackets [] also referred as array subscript operator. It is used to indicate single and multi
dimensional arrays.
Eg: int x[10]; float l[10][20];
Colon ( : )
Colon ( : ) is used in labels. It is used in unconditional control statement i.e., in goto
statement.
Comma Operator ( , )
It is used to link expressions together. It is used together with variables to separate one
variable from another. It is used in for loop. It has the lowest precedence among operators
Eg: for(n=1,m=10;n<=m; n++, m++)
int a,b,c;
sum= (x=5,y=3,x+y);
Ellipsis ( … )
Ellipsis ( … ) are three continuous dots with no white spaces between them. It is used in
function prototype. It indicates that the function can have any number of arguments.
Eg: void fun(char s,int n, float f, …);
Hash ( # )

Hash ( # ) is also known as pound sign. It is used to indicate preprocessor directives.
Eg: #include<stdio.h>
Parenthesis ( () )
Parenthesis ( () ) is also known as function call operator. It is used to indicate the open
and end of function prototypes, function call, function parameters. Parentheses are used to group
expressions.
Semicolon ( ; )
Semicolon ( ; ) is a statement delimiter. It is used to end a C statement.
Eg: g=d+h;
7. BITWISE OPERATORS
Bit wise operator is used to manipulate with bits within a word of memory. Bit wise
operator operates only on integer and character but not on float and double.
Operator Meaning Operator Meaning
~ One’s Complement & Bitwise AND
<< Left shift | Bit wise OR
>> Right shift ^ Bit wise x-or
One’s Complement Operator ( ~ )
One’s Complement makes the bits of operand inverted. Here one becomes zero and zero
becomes one.
Eg: x = 7 i.e., x = 0000 0111
One’s complement of x is 248 ( i.e., ~x = 1111 1000 = 248 )
Left shift Operator ( << )

Left shift operator ( << ) shifts each bit of the operand to left. The general form is
Variable << number of bit positions
Eg: x =7 ( i.e., 0000 0111 = 7 )
y = x <<1 is 14. ( i.e., 0000 1110 = 14 )
Right shift Operator ( >> )
Right shift operator shifts each bit of the operand to right. The general form is
Variable >> number of bit positions
Eg: x = 7 (0000 0111 = 7)
y = x >> 1 is 3 ( i.e., 0000 011 = 3 )
Bitwise AND operator (&)
It takes 2 bit patterns, and perform AND operations with it.
Example:
1010 (equivalent to 10)
--------------
AND 1000 (equivalent to 8)
--------------
It will take pair of bits from each position and if only both the bit is 1, the result on that position
will be 1. Otherwise the result will be 0.
Bitwise OR operator ( | )
It takes 2 bit patterns, and perform OR operations with it.

Example:
--------------
OR 1110 (equivalent to 14)
--------------
It will take pair of bits from each position and if any of the bits is 1, the result on that position
will be 1. Otherwise the result will be 0.
Bitwise X-OR Operator ( ^ )
It takes 2 bit patterns, and perform X-OR operations with it.
Example:
--------------
X-OR 0110 (equivalent to 6)
--------------
It will take pair of bits from each position and if both bits are same then the result on that
position will be 0. If both bits are different then the result will be 1.
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{

unsigned int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */
unsigned int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */
int c = 0;
c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */
printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %dn", c );
c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */
c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */
c = a << 2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */
c = a >> 2; /* 15 = 0000 1111 */
}
Output
Line 1 - Value of c is 12
Line 4 - Value of c is -61
8. Increment and Decrement Operators
Increment Operators
It is used to increase the value of the Operand by 1. There are two types of Increment
Operators in C Language. They are pre Increment operator and post Increment operator.
Prefix Increment Operator

It is used to increase the value of the variable by 1. Here the value of 1 is added to the
variable first along with the given variable value.
Eg: ++g -> prefix increment (Increment g, then evaluate g)
Example
int x = 5;
int y = ++x; // x is now equal to 6, and 6 is assigned to y
Postfix Increment Operators
It is used to increase the value of the variable by 1. Here the value of 1 is added to the
variable first along with the given variable value.
Eg: g++ -> postfix increment (Evaluate g, then increment g)
Example
int x = 5;
int y = x++; // x is now equal to 6, and 5 is assigned to y
C program to perform increment operation
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b,x=10,y=10;
a = x++;
b = ++y;
printf(“The value of a is: %d”,a);
printf(“The value of b is: %d”,b);
}
Output
The value of a : 10
The value of b : 11
Decrement Operators
It is used to decrease the value of the Operand by 1. There are two types of Decrement
Operators in C Language. They are pre decrement operator and post decrement operator.

Prefix decrement Operator
It is used to decrease the value of the variable by 1. Here the value of 1 is subtracted to
the variable first along with the given variable value.
Eg: --g ------> prefix decrement (Decrement g, then evaluate g)
Example
int x = 5;
int y = --x; // x is now equal to 4, and 4 is assigned to y
Postfix Decrement Operator
It is used to decrease the value of the variable by 1. Here the value of 1 is subtracted to
the variable first along with the given variable value.
Eg: g-- ----> postfix decrement (Evaluate g, then decrement g)
Example
int x = 5;
int y = x--; // x is now equal to 4, and 5 is assigned to y
C program to perform decrement operation
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b,x=10,y=10;
a = x--;
b = --y;
printf(“The value of a is: %d”,a);
printf(“The value of b is: %d”,b);
}
Output
The value of a : 10
The value of b : 9
9. Unary Operators

Unary operators act on single operand to produce new value. It precedes with operands.
Unary minus denotes subtraction. Subtraction operators require two operands but unary minus
require one operand. The operand used with this operator must be a single variable.
Operator Meaning
-
+
Unary minus
Unary plus
++ Increment by 1
-- Decrement by 1
sizeof Return the size of operand
Eg:
-786 -0.64 -5e-8 -(a+b) -6*(f+b) -45.878
When operator is used before variable then it is prefix notation. When operator is used
after variable then it is postfix notation.
Eg: x=3
Expression Result
++x 4
x++ 3
--x 2
x-- 3
Size-of Operator
This operator is used to return the size of string or character. It cannot be used in together with
Integers. The syntax is
sizeof(variable-name);

Eg:
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x;
clrscr();
printf(“The value of x is %d”,sizeof(x));
getch();
}
Precedence of Operators
 Outermost Parenthesis is evaluated first.
 Then innermost parenthesis.
 If there is two or more parenthesis, then the order of execution is from left to right.
 Next Multiplication and Division are performed.
 Finally Addition and Subtraction.
10. Equality Operators
Equality operator ( = ) is used together with condition. The value of the expression is one
or zero. If the expression is true the result is one, if false result is zero.
Operator Meaning
= = Equal to
!= Not equal to
Example:
x = 1 and y = 2 then
x = =2 is false , x = = 1 true , y != 3 true
Output:
The value of x is 2

Example: Consider the following program:
main()
{
int r=10, area;
area = 3.14 * r * r;
printf("area of circle = %dn", area);
}
The tokens in this program are:
main - identifier
( - left bracket, delimiter
) - right bracket, delimiter
{ - left brace, delimiter
int - reserved word
r - identifier
= - equals sign, operator
10 - constant
, - comma, delimiter
area - identifier
; - semicolon, delimiter
3.14 - constant
* - asterisk, operator

and so on. Thus a C program is a ‘stream of tokens’
3.7 DATA TYPES
Data Type is used to define the type of value to be used in a Program. Based on the type
of value specified in the program specified amount of required Bytes will be allocated to the
variables used in the program. Data types are broadly classified into three main types. They are
as follows.
 Primary data type ( Fundamental Data Types)
 Derived data type
 User defined data type.
Primary Data Type
Integers are represented as int, character are represented as char, floating point value are
represented as float, double precision floating point are represented as double and finally void
are primary data types. Primary data type offers extended data types. longint, long double are
extended data types.
Integer Data Type
Integer data type can store only the whole numbers.
Name C Representation Size
(bytes)
Range Format
Delimiter
Integer Int 2 -32768 to 32767 %d
Short Integer short int / short 2 -32768 to 32767 %d
Long Integer long int / long 4 -2147483648
to 2147483647
%ld
Signed Integer signed int 2 -32768 to 32767 %u

Unsigned Integer unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %d
Signed Short
Integer
unsigned short int /
short
2 -32768 to 32767 %d
Unsigned Short
Integer
unsigned short int /
short
2 0 to 65535 %u
Signed Long
Integer
signed long int / long 4 -2147483648
to 2147483647
%ld
Unsigned Long
Integer
unsigned long int /
long
4 0 to 4294967295 %lu
Floating Point Data Type
Floating Point data types are also known as Real Numbers. It can store only the real
numbers (decimal numbers) with 6 digits precision.
Name C Representation Size
(bytes)
Range Format
Delimiter
Float float 4 3.4 e-38 to 3.4 e+38 %f
Double double 8 1.7e-308 to 1.7e+308 %f
Long Double long double 10 3.4 e-4932 to 3.4 e+4932 %lf
Character Data Type
Normally a single character is defined as char data type. It is specified by the keyword
char. Char data type uses 8 bits for storage. Char may be signed char or unsigned char.
Name C Representation Size Range Format

(bytes) Delimiter
Character char 1 -128 to 127 %c
Signed Character signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c
Unsigned
Character
unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c
Empty Data Type
void is the empty data type. This data type is used before main function in a C Language.
The word void refers no return data type. It is used before the main function to specify the type
of function. If a function is of type void it does not return any value to the calling function.
3.8 Input and Output functions
Input: In any programming language input means to feed some data into program. This can be
given in the form of file or from command line.
C programming language provides a set of built-in functions to read given input and feed it to the
program as per requirement.
Input Functions are used to accept data from user. It is used to transfer the value to the processor
memory. The input/output functions are collectively known as Standard I/O Library. All
input/output operations are carried out through function calls.
The commonly available Input functions are
 getchar()
 getc()
 gets()
 scanf()
getchar()
The getchar function can be used to read a character from the standard input device. i.e.,
keyboard. The general form of getchar() is
variable_name = getchar();

Here variable name is a valid name of type char.
Example program
# include < stdio.h > // assigns stdio.h header file to your program
void main ( ) // Indicates the starting point of the program.
{
char C, // variable declaration
printf (“Type one character:”) ; // message to user
C = getchar () ; // get a character from key board and Stores it in variable C.
printf (” The character you typed is = %c”, C) ; // output
} // Statement which displays value of C on Standard screen.
getc()
This input function is used to read a character from the Input Unit i.e., Keyboard. The
general form of getc() is
getc(stdin);
Here stdin refers to File Pointer from which Input is to be taken.
gets()
This input function is used to accept a string as Input from the user through the input
device i.e., Keyboard. The function gets accepts the name of the string as a parameter, and fills
the string with characters that are input from the keyboard till new line character is encountered.
The gets function relieves the string from standard input device. The standard form of the
gets function is
gets(str);
Here str is a string variable.
Example program (Involving both gets and puts)

# include < stdio.h >
void main ( )
{
char s[80]; printf (“Type a string less than 80 characters:”);
gets(s); printf (“The string typed is:%s”,s); // puts(s);
}
scanf()
This input function is used to provide input or accept input from the user in a program. It
uses Format Specification String and list of variables as parameters. Format Specification used to
define the type of data used as Input. The syntax for scanf() is
scanf(“control string”,argument list); (or)
scanf(“cs1, cs2, ……csn”,arg1, arg2,….argn);
Program to understand scanf( ) function
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x;
int args;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
if (( args = scanf("%d", &x)) == 0) {
printf("Error: not an integern");
} else {
printf("Read in %dn", x);
}
}
Here %d is being used to read an integer value and we are passing &x to store the value read
input. Here &indicates the address of variable x.

This program will prompt you to enter a value. Whatever value we will enter at command
prompt that will be output at the screen using printf() function. If we enter a non-integer value
then it will display an error message.
Output
Enter an integer: 20
Read in 20
Here Control String specifies the format in which the variables values provided as Input.
Argument List specifies the address of Memory Locations where the values are being stored.
Control String and Argument list are separated by Commas.
Format
String
Meaning
%c Read single character.
%d Read a decimal integer.
%e Read a floating point value in Exponential form.
%f Read a floating point value.
%g Read a floating point value.
%h Reads a short integer.
%i Read a decimal, hexadecimal or octal integer.
%o Reads an octal integer.
%s Reads an string.
%u Reads an unsigned decimal integer.
%x Reads an Hexadecimal integer. (Unsigned) using lower case
a – f

%[..] Reads a string of word(s).
%X Reads a hexadecimal integer (Unsigned) using upper case A
– F
%u Reads a unsigned integer.
%U Reads a unsigned long integer.
%p Reads a pointer value
%hx Reads hex short
%lo Reads octal long
%ld Reads long
Format String is followed by a prefix percentage (%) together with specific character.
Example:
For integer with d as value to be input %d. scanf (“%d %d”, &sum1, &sum2);
For character with c as value to be input %c. scanf (“%c %c”, &ch, nname):
Output: In any programming language output means to display some data on screen, printer or
in any file.
C programming language provides a set of built-in functions to output required data.
Output Functions are used to transfer output data from processor memory to the output
terminal. The output is normally seen in the Monitor. Output Functions are used to display result.
The commonly available Output functions are
 putchar()
 putc()
 puts()
 printf()
 clrscr()

putchar()
This function prints a single character on the standard output device called Monitor. This
function has a single character as argument. This character is specified within single quotes. The
general form of putchar() is
putchar(variable-name);
Here variable name is of type char and it contains of single character.
Eg:
#include < stdio.h > // Inserts stdio.h header file into the Pgm
void main ( ) // Beginning of main function.
{
char in; // character declaration of variable in.
printf(” please enter one character”); // message to user
in = getchar ( ) ; // assign the keyboard input value to in.
putchar(in); // output ‘in’ value to standard screen.
}
clrscr()
This function is used together in a program. It is mentioned below variable declaration
and above program statements. It helps to clear or remove the previously loaded values on the
screen. Due to this whenever we run the program the previously run program results will not
appear.
putc()
This function is used to write a single character from the input unit. It displays single
character in the Monitor as output.
puts()

This function is used to display a string as output to the Output unit.
printf()
This function is used to print Numerical values i.e.,(integer, float, double), single
characters, strings or combination of both. printf() function is used to redirect data from
Computer’s memory to standard output device. For float data type, number can be rounded to
nearest decimal places.
The general form of printf() is
printf(“control string”, arg1, arg2, ... ..., argn); (or)
printf(“control string”, argument list);
Control string consists of characters that will be printed on the screen. Escape sequences
and Format specification can be used together with the control string. Format specification is
used to define the output format for each item, which is being displayed.
#include < stdio.h >
main ( )
{
printf(“Hello!”);
printf(“Welcome to the world of Engineering!”);
}
Program to understand printf( ) function
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int dec = 5;
char str[] = "abc";
char ch = 's';
float pi = 3.14;
printf("%d %s %f %cn", dec, str, pi, ch);
}
Output:
Hello! Welcome to world of Engineering.
Hello! Welcome to the world
of Engineering.

The output of the above would be
5 abc 3.140000 c
Difference between scanf( ) and printf( ) function
Scanf( ) Printf( )
Used to accept data Used to display data
Control string and & operator is used Control string only used.
It end with semicolon It end with semicolon
Number of input specified with format
String and enclosed within double quotes.
Number of input specified with
format string and separated by
commas.
The Input variables are specified using
Address operator (&) are separated by
commas.
The output variables are specified by
their name and separated by commas.

Chapter 3(1)

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