Automated system design for emergencies

Course Code:
3MUNSYDE
Course Title:
System Design for
Emergencies & Smart
Systems for Building and
Cities
ECTS/Credits: 6/3

2
S.No Name Email address Bachelor Current Status
1 Pradip Giri giripradip999@gmail.com
2 Gopal Acharya er.opalg@gmail.com
3 Ravindra lal mul ravindralalmul@gmail.com IE/WRC civil
Vyas
Municipality
4 Mahendra Poudel pdlmahendra@gmail.com BE Civil / PEC
Simalchour-8,
Pokhara
5 Sudip Pandey sudipp432@gmail.com PEC
6 Rajan Gurung bhaigurungk14@gmail.com SoE
7 Ishwar Timilsina ishwar.timilsina@gmail.com
8 Mahendra Bhattarai ermahendrabhattarai@gmail.com SoE
Pokhara
Nagarpalica
9 Rajan Ranabhat er.ranabhatrajan@gmail.com SoE electronic
10 Himal Basnet basnethimal75@gmail.com
11 Manisha Paneru me.munu123@gmail.com SoE
12 Madhav Karki karkimadhav83@gmail.com
13 Usha Kiran Rokaye usharokaya42@gmail.com
14 Bharat Wagle bharat.wagle39@gmail.com

3
THE MAIN OBJECTIVES
This course presents fundamentals of the emerging
of emergency engineering fields regarding the
theory, principles and terminology, tools and
techniques, mainly focusing in emergency situations.
Strategies of learning are compared with software
packages and a case study for smart system such
as smart building and smart cities. It is also
expected to understand the uncertainty and
complexity of the emergency response.

4
Students are expected to understand the theory and applied knowledge
of the engineering in an emergency situation especially for the cities
and buildings.
√ Advanced knowledge and systematic understanding of advanced topics
in smart technologies and smart cities/buildings applications in
general and disaster scenario.
√ Ability to critically discuss challenges and problems and critically
evaluate solutions involved in smart cities and buildings.
√ System design for emergency
√ Advanced ability to critically evaluate how the available technologies can
contribute to the sustainable development of cities
AFTER COMPLETION OF THE COURSE
STUDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO BE ABLE TO

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√ Advanced knowledge and understanding of the latest technologies
and how these technologies can contribute to the enhancement of
particular smart cities/buildings applications
√ Effective intellectual, communication and learning management skills
relating to smart technologies, smart cities and smart buildings
√ Analyse the process of emergency planning and recommend strategies
for improvement
AFTER COMPLETION OF THE COURSE
STUDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO BE ABLE TO …

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 Introduction: Definition, Theoretical fundamental, System functions and
requirements for intelligent systems.
 Data processing and smart systems control unit requirements for
Intelligent systems (Covering the required/suitable hardware and
software)
 Intelligent systems feedback: actions and actuating.
 Intelligent Systems Power: requirements, resources, utilisations.
 Principles and techniques for autonomous intelligent systems.
 Smart systems and emergency planning.
 Principles techniques for sensing and measuring the required physical
quantities.
 Intelligent/digital Sensors and Smart Sensors System Design
Content

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 Converting the acquired data to a suitable format to be processed and
analysed.
 Signal conditioning (pre-processing) techniques and Data Acquisition
Systems (DAQ).
 Telecommunications, including Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN),
Internet of Things (IoT).
 Direct Sensor to controller Interface and future trends.
 Key characteristics of contemporary urbanisation and the issues
and challenges that this present for sustainability and urban
environmental management
 The meaning and nature of sustainability for cities will be discussed,
followed by a consideration of the definitions of a smart city and a
discussion of the key elements of a smart city including its
contribution to both urban governance and the more effective and
efficient management of natural resources
Content …

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 System design case studies for smart building, cities and other
applications.
 Emergency design, roles and responsibilities
Content …
Learning Activities and Teaching Methods:
Face-to-face, blended, flipped and online, assignments, presentation
Assessment Methods:
A 3000-word equivalent (but not limited to) report demonstrating a smart
cities/building case studies in an emergency situation.

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Required Textbooks / Readings:
1. Intelligent Systems: Architecture, Design, and Control, Alexander M.
Meystel, James S. Albus, John Wiley & Sons, 2001, ISBN-10: 0471193747
2. Smart Sensor Systems, Gerard C.M. Meijer, Wiley-Blackwell (an imprint
of John Wiley & Sons Ltd), 2014, ISBN-13: 978-0471193746 ASIN:
B017KVT9B2
3. Smart Systems Integration and Simulation, Nicola Bombieri, Massimo
Poncino, Springer, 2018, ISBN-10: 3319801309
4. Handbook of Emergency Response: A Human Factors and Systems
Engineering Approach, Adedeji B. Badiru, Leeann Racz, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2017 113807733X 9781138077331 ISBN-13: 978-3319801308
5. Engineering in Emergencies: A Practical Guide for Relief Workers, Jan
Davis and Robert, Lambert ITDG Publishing; 2nd Revised edition edition
(2002) 1995, ISBN: 1853395218

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Recommended Textbooks / Readings:
1. Urban Resilience for Emergency Response and Recovery: Fundamental
Concepts and Applications, Gian Paolo Cimellaro, Springer International
Publishing, 2016, ISBN: 3319306553
2. Responding to Routine Emergencies, Frank C. Montagna, PennWell
Books (30 Jan. 1999), 1999, ISBN: 0912212810
3. Principles of Emergency Planning and Management, David Alexander,
Terra Publishing, 2014, ISBN: 1903544106

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Industrial Revolution
 Began in the 18th century, which created a great deal of
change in society. One major change was the shift from work
being done at home by hand in cottage industries to work being
done in factories.
 For example: an increase in wealth, the production of goods,
education, and the standard of living. People had access to
healthier diets, better housing, and cheaper goods.
 The development of the spinning machine by Sir Richard
Arkwright in England (Birth Place of Industrial Revolution)
led directly to the rise of the Industrial Revolution, and a new
world of manufactured products.

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Industrial Revolution …
First (1784)
Follows
introduction of
water- and
steam-powered
mechanical
manufacturing
facilities
Second (1870)
Follows
introduction of
electrically-
powered mass
production
based on
division of labor
Third (1969)
Uses electronics,
and IT to achieve
further
automation of
manufacturing
Fourth (2015)
Robotics, 3D
printer, big data,
Artificial
intelligence, IoT,
Smart
technology
• How we design and build a smart city and
nation Cheong Koon Hean TEDx Singapore
Automation:
 Mechanization
 Informatization
 Sensorization
 Feedback

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Present condition due Industrial Revolution
 Urbanization, Population growth, Ageing population
 Global warning, Climate change
 Resources shortage
 Aspirations for better quality environment*
 Develop and manage infrastructure*
Rate of change of urbanization,
population growth, aging
population are increases
*Safety & security, Comfort & health,
Sustainable, Space and energy efficiency, etc.

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Smart technology
Smart technology can be divided into three different kinds:
1. Smart devices have some automation and can be easily programmed
through an intuitive user interface. Think of a smart coffeemaker that you
program to make coffee at a certain time. Network connectivity is not
needed.
2. Smart connected devices are remotely controlled or monitored via
Bluetooth, LTE, Wi-Fi, wired or other means of connectivity. Examples
would be a smart bulb, smart security camera, smart refrigerator or a
smartphone.
3. IoT devices are software-defined products that are a combination of
product, application, analytics and the Internet/networking. They create
more value than smart or connected devices. That’s because they are
more scalable, upgradable, automated and future ready. Think of smart
cities, smart factories and smart homes.
 The term “smart” originally comes from the
acronym “Self-Monitoring, Analysis and
Reporting Technology” (Netlingo)
 the way we live, communicate, and work

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Key benefits of using smart technology
1) Convenience
 possible to do so many tasks simultaneously with minimal effort, such as
just using your voice, as it is today. For example: adjusting the lighting of a
room, securing your home, or ordering your favourite food online
 well-equipped to understand your preferences by analysing them in order
to provide you an automated, personalised service
 Able enough to take into account external factors such as traffic and the
condition of, for instance, your vehicle or the environment to inform you
in advance as well as guide you safely to your destination
2) Ensures Sustainability
 avoid high energy costs in industrial and domestic
 optimise our use of energy and instead waste it by forgetting to turn off
domestic appliances
 regulate and automate the use of energy, for example by switching off or
adjusting lights, heating, and cooling appliances when they are not in use,
or when the required conditions have been achieved. This saves money
and at the same time helps conserve energy

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Key benefits of using smart technology
3) Security
 offers more reliable security than traditional (manually operated security
systems)
 Helps alerting building owner regarding the various threats to their property
and inform law enforcement agencies to take protective measures such as,
blocking certain pathways or locking rooms. Smart security gadgets such as
door sensors, alarm systems, security cameras, and video doorbells
 smart digital smoke, gas, water and sewerage leakage can not only be
detected, but also the technology enables real-time preventive action,
potentially saving one from discomfort and even bodily harm
4) Efficiency
 makes use of data to understand how improvements can be made
 tracks and analyses what’s going on to deliver better results in the future.
 processes and systems become more efficient, and you as a person become
more productive.
5) Saves Money and Time
 optimise the use of energy and in turn, use less of it to do more, which save
money ( example: a smart thermostat, smart lighting, remote power
management, water heaters, washing machines)
 automates repetitive chores and eliminates lost or wasted time.

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Application of smart technology
 Transportation
used within a moving vehicle or can take part of infrastructures and networks
for transportation enhancement and regulation in land (i.e., road, off-road, rail,
cable, and pipeline), sea, and air (i.e., air and space) transportation. Examples:
heterogeneous sensor-based GPS enhancement systems, engine sensing and control
systems, electronic stability control systems for vehicles, parking sensors, car theft
detection and monitoring devices, airplane balancing aids, vibration analysis
instrumentation for model optimization and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) attitude, and
operating controls
 Telecommunications
used in the transmission of information (e.g., audio, video, text, data from sensors,
alarm events) through different media, such as cable, air, water, or void, to
improve performance and reliability of existing infrastructures, or to explore new
areas and potentials.
 Military and Defense
used in defending countries from threats both foreign and domestic and
specifically includes systems for command, control, communications,
computing, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and targeting (C4ISRT).
Example: sensor-enhanced targeting systems, battle damage assessment, forces
monitoring, and nuclear, biological, and chemical attack detection

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Application of smart technology …
 Safety and Security
aimed at delaying, preventing, and otherwise protecting against accidents or
crimes, which may cause adverse effects to people or organizations. Examples
include free fall sensors and human airbags, chemicals/radiation sensing systems, and
anti-theft and anti-intrusion sensor systems.
 Home Automation
improving convenience, comfort, energy efficiency, and security to residential
buildings fall into this category, also known as domotics. Examples are energy-
efficient distributed heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) sensing and control
systems like the energy management system, acoustic monitoring systems, audio/visual
switching and distribution systems, and light control systems.
 Industrial Automation and Logistics
Industrial automation deals with the optimization of energy-efficient
manufacturing systems by precise measurement and control technologies.
Logistics concentrates on the flow of goods between the point of origin and the
point of destination to meet the requirements of customers and corporations,
and it involves the integration (and interaction) of information, transportation,
inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and often security.

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 Laboratory Equipment
allow the fabrication of compact, accurate, and energy-efficient instrumentation
to be used for analysis, measurement, and manipulation in a wide range of
fields. Examples: spectrometers and interferometers, MEMS scanners and projectors,
and intelligent motion surfaces for manipulation
 Environment and Food/Beverage
can be used for environmental applications (including monitoring and
treatment) or food and beverage quality and safety. Examples: sensor nodes
(within networks) for environment monitoring (to study influences on crops, livestock)
based on system-on chip design, general-purpose microsensor modules,
macroinstruments for large-scale earth monitoring and planetary exploration, forest fire
detection and flood detection sensors, animal movement tracking systems, and
tagging/tracking in supply chains.
 Healthcare and Biomedical
delivering diagnosis, treatment, care, and support of patients in healthcare
systems, for tele-monitoring of human physiological data, tracking and
monitoring systems for doctors and patients inside a hospital, drug
administration systems, and smart textiles for health monitoring.
the self-powered wireless pulse oximeter, a wearable battery-free wireless
electroencephalograph (EEG), breath monitoring systems, limb tracking systems,
wireless multi-sensor microsystems for human physiological data monitoring,and
wearable posture corrective systems using biofeedback

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 Power Generation, Distribution, and Harvesting
convert energy from different sources, store and distribute electricity to the
users. Sensor-based systems for control of wind turbines and portable,
multipurpose energy harvesting bracelets are just some examples of this
increasingly studied field in the today’s efforts aimed at lowering the carbon
footprint. Energy harvesting usually refers to the process by which energy is
derived from external sources, captured and stored for small, autonomous
devices at a low scale.

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Smart technology in Nepal
 Costumer application
 Shopping complex
 Hospital
 Telecommunication
 Home automation
 Smart building/Cities
 Early disaster warning
 etc.

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National Decleration made on the Budget Speech of 2072-73 as;
 “224. The development of smart city will be initiated by laying the
fiber in the mid-hill highway with the utilization of rural
development fund. Continuity will be given to establish the rural
centers.”
The need of establishment of new smart cities in Nepal has been
highlighted in the Government‟s Policies and Programs of 2073-74 in
point no. 65 as follows:
 “65. Cities will be made the base of economic growth by developing
urban inter-linkages. Cities will be developed as per the concept of 'One
city, One Identity' in order to promote tourism and diversify trade and
business. Few smart cities will be built in various parts of the country.
'National Building Code' will be strictly enforced. Arrangement will be
for the construction, repair and maintenance, protection and supervision
the Government-owned buildings through a single entity. For the
establishment of well-managed city, one integrated city or a valley
development authority will be constituted in each State.”

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The budget for the coming fiscal year 2073/74 (2016-17) has
further visualized the development of modern, green and
information technology-friendly smart cities as:
 “92. Keeping Palungtar of Gorkha at a center, smart city master
will be developed and implemented in the surrounding areas of
Marsyangdi. In order to develop Walling, Lumbini and
including 10 cities as modern and prosperous smart cities,
infrastructure construction work will be initiated through
the master plan.”

26
An Automatic Flight Control System consists of several sensors for various tasks
like speed control, height, position, doors, obstacle, fuel, maneuvering and many
more. A Computer takes data from all these sensors and processes them by
comparing them with pre-designed values. The combination of Sensors,
Computers and Mechanics makes it possible to run the plane in Autopilot Mode.
All the parameters i.e. the Sensors (which give inputs to the Computers), the
Computers (the brains of the system) and the mechanics (the outputs of the
system like engines and motors) are equally important in building a successful
automated system.
Sensor

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Sensors
 A sensor is a device which converts physical quantities into
electrical form or converts non-electrical quantities into
electrical equivalent.
 The physical quantity can be temperature, pressure, force,
flow, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
 This physical quantities are converted into electrical form i.e.,
change in resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc.
 These are then converted into voltage or current signals within
a specified range by the sensors for measurement purposes
Non-
electrical/Physical
quantities
SENSOR
Electrical
equivalent form

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Example of sensors …
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD):
Temperature sensor
Thermocouple: Temperature sensor
Piezoelectric sensor: Pressure sensor
Capacitive hygrometer: Humidity sensor
Ultrasonic flow meter: Flow sensor
Temperature
change
RTD
Resistance
change
Temperature
change
Thermo
couple
Voltage
change
Pressure
Piezoelectric
Sensor
Voltage
Humidity/
Moisture
Capacitive
Hygrometer
Capacitance
change
Fluid
Flow/Velocity
Ultrasonic
flow meter
Frequency
change
Signal conditioning: amplification,
filtering, frequency response
matching, etc..
0 – 10 V DC,
-10 to +10 V,
0 – 25 mA

30
Classification of sensor according to signal domain
Sensors transform signals from different
energy domains to the electrical domain.
ElectricalMagnetic
Chemical
Radiant
Mechanical
Thermal
Sensor classification according to
signal domain
 Radiant or optical domain: An image
sensor that translates a picture into an
electrical signal.
 Mechanical signal domain: An
accelerometer or airbag sensor is able to
translate mechanical acceleration into an
electrical signal.
 A temperature sensor translates the
temperature into an electrical signal.
 Even electrical sensors exist. They
translate electrical signals into other
electrical signals, for instance to measure
accurately the voltage difference between
two skin electrodes on the chest of a
patient.
 Magnetic domain. A Hall plate is able to
convert a magnetic signal into an electrical
signal.
 Chemical and biochemical domain:
sensors are able to translate these signals
into electrical ones. Examples are pH
sensors and DNA sensors.

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Types of sensors
Power
requirement
Self-
generating
type sensor
Modulating
type sensor
Output
Analog type
sensor
Digital type
sensor
Placement
Contact
type
Non-contact
type
System
Open
Closed-loop
others
……..
……….
……
……
Sensors can be classified into different types according to power requirement,
output, placement, system, fabrication, size, shape, sensor material, etc. . Some
are shown below:
Sensors classification is not limited as mentioned above.

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Types of sensors …
Self-generating type sensor
• Self-generating sensor does not need
any additional energy source and
directly generates an electric signal in
response to an external physical
quantities.
• Thermocouple, Piezoelectric, are the
example
Modulating type sensor
• Modulating sensor require external
power (an excitation signal ) for their
operation. That signal is modified by the
sensor to produce the output signal.
• The produce output is in the form of
change of resistance, inductance or
capacitance
• Thermistor, RTD are the example

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Analog Sensors
 produce an analog output i.e. a
continuous output signal with
respect to the quantity being
measured.
 Requires analog to digital
conversion before feeding to
the digital controller
Digital Sensors
 produces discrete or digital
output that can be directly
interfaced with the digital
controller.
Contact sensor
 Measure the response of a target to some
form of physical contact.
 Response to touch, force, torque,
pressure, temperature or electrical
quantities
Non-contact sensor
 Measure the response brought by some
form of electromagnetic radiation.
 Responds to light, x-ray, acoustic,
electrical or magnetic radiation.
Contact sensor Vs. non-contact sensor
Analog-type Vs. Digital-type sensor

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To measure with a chemical balance, weights have to be placed on the balance
scale in order to bring the pointer to zero. The advantage of this system is that the
actual sensor only needs to sense accurately around the zero point. The feedback
placing of weights determines the value. In an open sensor system, the sensor has
to provide the linearity and accuracy of the signal transfer all by itself.
Open systems, in which
there is no feedback, and
closed-loop systems, with
feedback. A spring
balance is a good
mechanical example of
the first; a chemical
balance is a good
example of the second.
Open system Vs. closed system

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Sensor system
 Sensors, in their most general form, are systems possessing a variable number
of components. Three basic components have already been identified: a sensor
element, sensor packaging and connections, and sensor signal processing
hardware. However, there are additional components to certain sensors.

37
 Complete sensor system include the following components
1. sensor element(s) and transduction material(s);
2. interconnection between sensor elements (electrical and/or mechanical) input
"gate";
3. output "gate" and interconnection;
4. packaging;
5. modulating input interconnects;
6. calibration device;
7. calibration input/outputs;
8. output signal modifying device (amplifier);
9. output signal processing (for smart sensors); and
10. actuators for calibration
Sensor system …

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Integrated sensor and smart sensor or integrated intelligent sensor
 In the traditional sense, the output of the
sensor is mostly analog signal. It doesn't
have the function of signal processing
and networking. It needs to connect to a
specific measuring instrument to
complete the signal processing and
transmission function.
 The integrated device sensor has
electronics and the transduction element
jointly on one Si wafer, is known as
system-on-chip.
 A smart sensor is an analog or digital
transducer combined with sensing and
computing abilities. It consists of a
transduction component, signal
conditioning electronics, and a processor
that supports some intelligence in a
single package.
 If the smart sensor system has
expansibility possibility then it can be
called intelligent sensor

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Integrated sensor and smart sensor or integrated intelligent sensor …
The subsystems of a smart sensor
include:
 a primary sensing element;
 excitation control;
 amplification (possibly variable gain);
 analog filtering;
 data conversion;
 compensation;
 digital information processing;
 digital communications processing; a
 power supply.
Smart systems incorporate functions of
sensing, actuation, and control in order
to describe and analyze a situation, and
make decisions based on the available
data in a predictive or adaptive manner,
thereby performing smart actions. In
most cases the “smartness” of the
system can be attributed to autonomous
operation based on closed loop
control, energy efficiency, and
networking capabilities.

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Potential advantages of the smart-sensor concept
 lower maintenance;
 reduced down time;
 higher reliability;
 fault tolerant systems;
 adaptability for self-calibration and
compensation;
 lower cost;
 lower weight;
 fewer interconnections between multiple
sensors and control systems; and
 less complex system architecture.

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Characteristic of sensor
 Range
 Resolution
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Deadband
 Signal to Noise ratio
 Repeatability
 Reproducibility
 Stability
 Hysteresis error
 Response time
 Bandwidth
 Resonance
 Operating temperature

46
Choosing a sensor
 Environmental factor
 Sensor characteristic
 Economic factor
 Sensitivity
 Range
 Stability
 Repeatability
 Linearity
 Signal to Noise ratio
 Response time
 Resolution
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Reproducibility
 Hysteresis error
 Bandwidth
 Resonance
 Temperature range
 humidity factor
 Corrosion
 Size
 Over range protection
 Susceptibility of EM
interference
 Power consumption
 Self-test capability
 Cost
 Availability
 lifetime

48
Smart System Architectures
Module-Level
 Smart embedded systems incorporate heterogeneous components
 For all systems the basic building blocks are conceptually similar,
however, in each instance the specific implementation can greatly differ.
 A general classification of the basic building blocks is the following:
A system architecture is the conceptual model that defines
the structure, behavior, and more views of a system. An architecture
description is a formal description and representation of a system,
organized in a way that supports reasoning about
the structures and behaviors of the system.
A system architecture can consist of system components and the sub-
systems developed, that will work together to implement the overall
system.

49
Smart System Architectures …
 Energy Source: Harvesting devices capable of
converting energy of a physical source into electricity,
such as solar (e.g., photovoltaic cells), thermal (e.g.,
thermoelectric energy generators), and mechanical
(e.g., piezoelectric scavenger) energy generators.
 Energy Storage: Devices capable of storing a limited
amount of electrical energy in the potential, kinetic,
chemical, or other forms of energy, and restoring the
stored energy back to the electrical energy on demand.
The main types of energy storage devices which are
generally used for smart embedded systems are
batteries, supercapacitors (or ultracapacitors), and fuel
cells.

50
 Energy Conversion: Components that in general
convert electric energy from one form to another. Their
functionality is fundamental in order to transfer the
energy within the system and hence to realize the
power supply to all components of the system. Energy
conversion devices can be typically divided into DC–
DC, AC–DC, DC–AC, and AC–AC converters.
 Power Devices: Energy management components
such as power diodes, thyristors, power FETs, and
power MOSFETs.
 Sensor: Devices capable of detecting events or
changes of a physical quantity and converting them
into an electrical signal. Examples are MEMS, electro-
optical sensors, image sensors, thermocouples, and
acoustic sensors.

51
 Actuator: Devices capable of converting an electrical
signal into another form of energy, such as electric
motors, light-emitting diodes, and loudspeakers.
 Digital: Digital hardware blocks for processing and
storing digital information, such as processor or digital
signal processing (DSP) cores, digital accelerators,
device controllers, and also application-specific
ASICs. This category includes also the embedded
software executed by the hardware blocks.
 Analog Mixed-Signal and RF: Analog components
such as RF communication devices, signal
conditioning, and interface circuits.

52
System-Level
Each miniaturized intelligent system falls in one of the
following categories, defined by a set of characterizing
functions.
 Sensor Node (Within a Network): Characterizing
functions are sensing, data processing, data storage,
communication. A sensor node is a device that
acquires data from the environment, optionally
performs some kind of elaboration, and either stores
data or directly transmits it to other devices (usually
through a wireless channel). Low power consumption
and maintainability are very common requirements,
especially for remote devices.

53
 Actuator Node: Characterizing functions are data
processing, actuating, communication. This type of
device runs operations (e.g., turning on or off some
other device) when programmed or when it receives
the required command from the network. Reliability is
fundamental when safety- or mission-critical tasks are
executed.
 Communication Node: Characterizing functions are
data processing, data storage, communication. This
device communicates within a network and optionally
elaborates data. It can operate as a remote database,
a repeater, or an intelligent node connected to
sensors and actuators and can run at a high
hierarchical level.

54
 Autonomous Sensor and Actuator: Characterizing
functions are sensing, data processing, data storage,
actuating, communication. These devices include
mainly all the features of the previous categories,
incorporating communication interfaces, sensors and
actuators, which can be used for other devices control
or for self-displacement.

55
From a higher level of abstraction, smart electronic
systems can not only consist of a single heterogeneous
device, but can also be arranged in various architectures
with different degrees of complexity. The following
categories summarize the main system-level
architectures characterizing.
 Single Module: A single-module smart system can
perform all operations related to its purpose without
communicating to a host or other devices.
 Host-Client System: A host-client system is based on
two smart (sub-) system modules, where one typically
is used to access the information stored or elaborated
by the other, or to program or control it.

56
 Network: The system comprises many devices,
either communicating among them or connected
through a network that may also be built on a
hierarchical model. The devices can share a common
module architecture or can be heterogeneous (e.g.,
many sensor nodes and an intelligent data collector
node).

57
Sensor Technologies for Intelligent Transportation
Systems

58
Systems …

59
Systems …

60
What is Disaster
 A disaster is a serious disruption occurring over a short or long period of
time that causes widespread human, material, economic or
environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community
or society to cope using its own resources.
 Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits –
more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by hazards occur in
developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times
greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in
industrialized countries.

61
 There are either natural disasters or man‐made.
 The first could be categorized into
 meteorological (atmospheric: cold, heat, windy/storm),
 climatological (land conditions affected by weather: droughts,
famine, wildfires, avalanche),
 hydrological (water‐related: rains, floods, landslides),
 geophysical (earthquake, volcanic eruptions, tsunami) and
 biological (life affected by way of diseases, infestation, etc.) origins.
 The second resulting from deliberate or negligent human actions could
be categorized into
 accidents (explosion and blasts, leakage and bursts, fire),
 disruptions/disorders (civil unrest, power blackout, transport
blockades, cyber terrorism),
 aggression (violence, armed incursion, war) and
 emergencies (medical such as chemical contamination, and
environmental such as pollution).
Types of disaster

62
Impact of different types of disaster between 1980 to 2015
Disaster risk is expressed in terms of potential loss of lives, deterioration of health
status and livelihoods, and potential damage to assets and services due to impact of
existing natural hazard.

63
Different types of disaster …

65
What is Disaster Management?
Preparedness -- activities prior to a disaster.
Examples: preparedness plans; emergency
exercises/training; warning systems.
Response -- activities during a disaster.
Examples: public warning systems;
emergency operations; search and
rescue.
Recovery -- activities following a disaster.
Examples: temporary housing; claims processing and
grants; long-term medical care and counseling.
Mitigation - activities that reduce the effects of
disasters.
Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability
analyses; public education.
 Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing,
and reducing disaster risk, and it helps minimize the vulnerability of a society or
community. It also prevents or mitigates the adverse effects of natural disasters,
facilitating a sustainable development process

66
Early warning systems
 Early warning systems form “the set
of capacities needed to generate
and disseminate timely and
meaningful warning information to
enable individuals, communities and
organizations threatened by a
hazard to prepare and to act
appropriately in sufficient time to
reduce the possibility of harm or
loss.
 It is an integral part of community
based disaster risk reduction which
consists of 4 key elements; risk
knowledge, monitoring, forecasting
and education.

67
Community Based Flood Early Warning System
The Community Based Flood Early Warning System is an integrated system of tools and plans managed by
and for communities, providing almost real-time flood early warnings to reduce flood risks. CBFEWS is
based on people-centered, timely, simple and low-cost technology. It disseminates information to the
vulnerable communities downstream through a network of communities and government bodies. A properly
designed and implemented system can save lives and reduce property loss by increasing the lead time to
prepare and respond to floods. Telemetry based wireless solution that
employs non-contact sensors named
the Telemetry based Water Level
Monitoring System (TWLMS v4).

68
Data Acquisition and Transfer
unit, Transmitter Unit installed at
Ratu Khola, Bardibas by ICIMOD
 Comprised of 3 units namely the Data
Acquisition (DA) unit, the Data Upload (DU)
unit, and the Alarm Unit (AU).
 The DA unit is installed at the river bank. It
periodically monitors the water level of the river
through its contactless ultrasonic based
technology and transmits the measurements
wirelessly to the DU unit. The DU unit – placed
at a designated caretaker’s house as far as 3km
with Line of Sight between antennas – then
processes the measurements to generate
localized messages and warnings and uploads
measurements to a remote server through a
cellular data connection. After processing the
measurements received, the server then
proceeds to display the data in a time-wise
chart. Multiple AUs may be placed at vulnerable
downstream communities. Upon receiving the
correct SMS, the AU sounds a loud siren thus
facilitating flood early warning dissemination
where it is required most.

69

70
Community-based landslide early warning system in the
earthquake-affected areas
J. Mt. Sci. (2019) 16(12): 2701-2713

71
Community-based landslide early warning system in the
earthquake-affected areas …
J. Mt. Sci. (2019) 16(12): 2701-2713

72
Early Warning Systems - monitoring
eg. ADPC Tsunami and Multi-Hazard Regional Early Warning System
1. Recorder on sea bed measures water
pressure every 15 mins - an unusual
result triggers a reading every 15 secs.
2. Buoy measures surface conditions and
sends this plus data from sea bed to
satellite
3. Satellite receives data and relays it to
ground stations
1. Float in a "stilling well"
tube measures sea level
2. Data is processed and sent
to satellite
3. Satellite transmits data to
alert centres

73
YES
YES
NO
MAY BE
MAY BE
MAY BE
MAY BE
Does Early Warning matter?
ICTs in Disaster Preparedness and Response

74
Monitoring disaster
possibilities using Satellite
communication and GIS
tools
1. Drought
2. Floods
3. Global warming

75
Principles techniques for sensing and measuring the required
physical quantities
Physical quantities
 called measurand
 for example: current, voltage, resistance, inductance, capacitance, frequency,
displacement, power, flow, pressure, temperature, altitude, speed, liquid level,
light intensity etc
 The primary sensing element sense the physical quantities
One form
of energy
Transducers
Another form
of energy
Non-
electrical/Physical
quantities
SENSOR
Electrical
equivalent form
This overall system of sensing and measuring deals with instrumentation systems

76
Basis Comparison between sensor and transducer
Sensor Transducer
Definition
Senses the physical changes occurs in
the surrounding and converting it into a
readable quantity.
The transducer is a device which,
when actuates transforms the
energy from one form to another.
Components Sensor itself Sensor and signal conditioning
Function
Detects the changes and induces the
corresponding electrical signals.
Conversion of one form of energy
into another.
Examples
Proximity sensor, Magnetic sensor,
Accelerometer sensor, Light sensor etc.
Thermistor, Potentiometer,
Thermocouple, etc.
Non-
electrical/
Physical
quantities
SENSOR
Readable
quantity
Pre-
processor
Electrical
Energy
Transducer

77
Operational Modes of Instrumentation
 Null Instrument:
 Uses the null method for measurement.
 In this method, the instrument exerts an influence on the
measured system so as to oppose the effect of the measurand.
 The influence and the measurand are balanced until they are
equal but opposite in value, yielding a null measurement.
 An equal arm balance scale is a good mechanical example of a
manual balance-feedback null instrument

78
Within the null instrument, the iteration and feedback mechanism is a loop
that can be controlled either manually or automatically. Essential to the null
instrument are two inputs: the measurand and the balance input. The null
instrument includes a differential comparator, which compares and
computes the difference between these two inputs.

79
 Deflection Instrument:
 uses the deflection method for measurement.
 is influenced by the measurand so as to bring about a proportional
response within the instrument. This response is an output reading that
is a deflection or a deviation from the initial condition of the instrument.
 a physical deflection of a prime element that is linked to an output
scale, such as a pointer or other type of readout, which deflects to
indicate the measured value. The magnitude of the deflection of the
prime element brings about a deflection in the output scale that is
designed to be proportional in magnitude to the value of the
measurand.

80
The input signal is sensed by the prime element or primary circuit and
thereby deflected from its initial setting. The deflection signal is transmitted
to signal conditioners that act to condition the signal into a desired form.
Examples of signal conditioning are to multiply the deflection signal by
some scaler magnitude, such as in amplification or filtering, or to transform
the signal by some arithmetic function. The conditioned signal is then
transferred to the output scale, which provides the indicated value
corresponding to the measurand value.
 Analog and Digital Readout Instruments

81
 Analog Sensors
 Analog sensors provide a signal that is continuous in both its
magnitude and its temporal (time) or spatial (space) content. The
defining word for analog is “continuous.” If a sensor provides a
continuous output signal that is directly proportional to the input
signal, then it is analog.
 Most physical variables, such as current, temperature,
displacement, acceleration, speed, pressure, light intensity, and
strain, tend to be continuous in nature and are readily measured
by an analog sensor and represented by an analog signal.

82
 Digital Sensors
 Digital sensors provide a signal that is a direct digital
representation of the measurand. Digital sensors are basically
binary (“on” or “off ”) devices. Essentially, a digital signal exists at
only discrete values of time (or space).
 The concept of a digital sensor is illustrated by the revolution
counter. Such devices are widely used to sense the revolutions
per minute of a rotating shaft.

83
Types of transducer
Based upon
transduction
(conversion
process,
principle
used)
Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive
Based upon
variation
parameter
Primary
Secondar
y
Based upon
source of
energy
Active
Passive
Based upon
operation
Analog
Digital
Based upon
role of
transducer
Input
Output
Based upon
nature of
output
Mechanical
Electrical

84
Different mechanical transducers
 There are various types of transducers depending upon the change
in property or the energy they bring about to measure specified
physical quantities. The transducers used for the measurement
systems are broadly classified into following categories: mechanical
and electrical
 In order to extract information from a mechanical system, a
mechanical displacement or velocity can be employed
Some common mechanical sensing element are
 Mechanical spring devices: used to convert a force or a torque
into displacement
 Pressure sensitive devices: used to convert pressure into
displacement
 Flow rate sensing elements:
 Bimetallic Strip: used to changes in temperature to displacement.

85
Different mechanical transducers …
Mechanical spring devices
Cantilever spring, Helical spring, Spiral spring, Torsion bar or shaft,
Proof ring load cell, Column load cell, Single spring flexure pivot

86

87
Pressure sensitive devices

88

89

90

91

92
Different Electrical transducer
Why we need electrical transducers?
 Some physical quantity to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature,
pressure, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed etc
 Such quantities cannot be measured directly , but are needed to be sensed and
changed into some form for easy measurement
 Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance, inductance and
capacitance etc can be easily measured, transferred and stored
 Therefore, non- electrical quantities are required to be converted into electrical
form and then measured
 The function of converting non- electrical quantity into electrical one is
accomplished be a device the electrical transducer
Advantage of electrical transducer?
 Friction effect,
 Mass inertia effects,
 power,
 store,
 signal processing,
 communication,
 Size, etc.
Basic requirements
 Linearity
 Repeatability
 High output signal quality
 High reliability and stability
 No hysteresis
 Residual deformation
 etc.
Drawback
 Low reliability in
comparison to
mechanical transduces
due to ageing effect and
high cost

93
Different Electrical transducers …

122
BMR400 router, the video, temperature, smoke,
wind and other field data of each monitoring
point are sent to the forestry fire prevention
office at all levels through 4G/3G network.
BMR400 cellular wifi router connects to the
remote management center via VPN to realize
the two-way access of data. The center can
timely adjust the various data of each monitoring
site, forestry fire prevention information at all
levels, the real-time management of forest fire
safety, real-time monitoring and data updating of
forest climate dynamic change, forest fire
prevention, and the auxiliary decision-making of
fire fighting and saving command
the forest fire monitoring
and warning system

123
• Converting the acquired data to a suitable format to be processed and analysed.
• Signal conditioning (pre-processing) techniques and Data Acquisition Systems (DAQ).
Data Acquisition Systems
Non-
electrical/
Physical
quantities
SENSOR
Readable
quantity
Pre-
processor
Electrical
Energy
Transducer
Data Acquisition Systems
 Collecting
 Data Acquisition system is an information system that collects, conversion of
data, stores, distributes information and processing
 It is used in industrial and commercial electronics and environmental and
scientific equipment to capture electrical signals or environmental condition on
computer device
 It include different tools and technologies that are design to accumulate data
DAS1 DAS2

124
Data Acquisition Systems …
Data Acquisition Systems system consists of different component
 Sensor
 Signal conditioning (Amplification, Isolation, Filtering, Linearization)
 Multiplexing, sample and hold
 Data conversion
 Data handling
 Associate transmission
 Storage
 Display devices
Non-
electrical/
Physical
quantities
SENSOR
Signal
Conditioning
S/H
ADC
Digital
Interfacing
Computer
DAS

125
Block diagram of Data Acquisition Systems

127
Data acquisition systems consider the following analog signals.
 Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct measurement of
electrical quantities such as DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents,
resistance and etc.
 Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers such as LVDT,
Thermocouple & etc.
Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following two
types.
 Analog Data Acquisition Systems
 Digital Data Acquisition Systems

128
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals
are known as analog data acquisition systems. Following are the blocks
of analog data acquisition systems.
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and
selection of desired portion of the signal.
 Display device − It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
 Graphic recording instruments − These can be used to make the
record of input data permanently.
 Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for acquiring, storing &
reproducing of input data.

129
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals are
known as digital data acquisition systems. So, they use digital
components for storing or displaying the information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquisition.
 Acquisition of analog signals
 Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data
 Processing of digital signals or digital data

130
Following are the blocks of Digital data acquisition systems.
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and
selection of desired portion of the signal.
 Multiplexer − connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it acts as
parallel to serial converter.
 Analog to Digital Converter − It converts the analog input into its
equivalent digital output.
 Display device − It displays the data in digital format.
 Digital Recorder − It is used to record the data in digital format.

131
PC based Data Acquistion System

132
Signal conditioning (pre-processing) techniques
 Signal processing is focuses on analyzing, modifying, and
synthesizing signals such as sound, images, and scientific
measurements.
 Signal processing techniques can be used to improve transmission,
storage efficiency and subjective quality and to also emphasize or detect
components of interest in a measured signal.
 is the manipulation of an analog signal in such a way that it meets the
requirements of the next stage for further processing.
 It performs the functions like amplification, Isolation, Filters, Converts
and selection of desired portion of the signal
Obtain Maintain Improve

133
 In signal processing, a filter is a device or process that removes some
unwanted components or features from a signal. Filtering is a class
of signal processing, the defining feature of filters being the complete or
partial suppression of some aspect of the signal. Most often, this means
removing some frequencies or frequency bands.
 Filters are widely used in electronics and telecommunication, in radio,
television, audio recording, radar, control systems, music synthesis,
image processing, and computer graphics.
 Some terminology:
 Cutoff frequency is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass
signals. It is usually measured at a specific attenuation such as 3 dB.
 Roll-off is the rate at which attenuation increases beyond the cut-off
frequency.
 Transition band, the (usually narrow) band of frequencies between a
passband and stopband.
 Ripple is the variation of the filter's insertion loss in the passband.
Filter (signal processing)

134
Filter (signal processing) …
 The frequency response can be classified into a number of different band forms
describing which frequency bands the filter passes (the passband) and which it rejects
(the stopband):
 Low-pass filter – low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.
 High-pass filter – high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.
 Band-pass filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.
 Band-stop filter or band-reject filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are
attenuated.
 Notch filter – rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.
A notch filter is a band-stop filter with a narrow stopband
 Comb filter – has multiple regularly spaced narrow pass bands giving the band
form the appearance of a comb.
 All-pass filter – all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.

136
 Electronic filters were originally entirely passive consisting of resistance,
inductance and capacitance. Active technology makes design easier and
opens up new possibilities in filter specifications.
 Digital filters operate on signals represented in digital form. The essence
of a digital filter is that it directly implements a mathematical algorithm,
corresponding to the desired filter transfer function, in its programming or
microcode. A digital filter system usually consists of an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) to sample the input signal, followed by a microprocessor
and some peripheral components such as memory to store data and filter
coefficients etc.
 Mechanical filters are built out of mechanical components. In the vast
majority of cases they are used to process an electronic signal
and transducers are provided to convert this to and from a mechanical
vibration. However, examples do exist of filters that have been designed
for operation entirely in the mechanical domain.
Technologies used to build Filter

137
 Distributed-element filters are constructed out of components made from
small pieces of transmission line or other distributed elements. There are
structures in distributed-element filters that directly correspond to
the lumped elements of electronic filters, and others that are unique to this
class of technology.
 Waveguide filters consist of waveguide components or components
inserted in the waveguide. Waveguides are a class of transmission line
and many structures of distributed-element filters, for instance the stub,
can also be implemented in waveguides.
 Optical filters were originally developed for purposes other than signal
processing such as lighting and photography. With the rise of optical
fiber technology, however, optical filters increasingly find signal
processing applications and signal processing filter terminology, such
as longpass and shortpass, are entering the field.
 Transversal filter, or delay line filter, works by summing copies of the input
after various time delays. This can be implemented with various
technologies including analog delay lines, active circuitry, CCD delay
lines, or entirely in the digital domain.
Technologies used to build Filter

138
 Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases the
resolution of the input signal, and increases its signal-to-noise ratio.
 For example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor, which is
probably in the millivolts range is probably too low for an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) to process directly. In this case it is necessary to bring
the voltage level up to that required by the ADC.
 Commonly used amplifiers used for signal conditioning include sample
and hold amplifiers, peak detectors, log amplifiers, antilog amplifiers,
instrumentation amplifiers and programmable gain amplifiers.
Amplification

140
 Attenuation, the opposite of amplification, is necessary when voltages to
be digitized are beyond the ADC range.
 This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal amplitude so
that the conditioned signal is within ADC range.
 Attenuation is typically necessary when measuring voltages that are
more than 10 V.
Attenuation

141
 External power is required for the operation of an active sensor. (E.g. a
temperature sensor like a thermistor & RTD, a pressure sensor (piezo-
resistive and capacitive), etc.).
 The stability and precision of the excitation signal directly relates to the
sensor accuracy and stability.
Excitation

142
 Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are
not linearly related to the physical measurement.
 Linearization is the process of interpreting the signal from the sensor and
can be done either with signal conditioning or through software.
Linearization

143
 Signal isolation may be used to pass the signal from the source to the
measuring device without a physical connection. It is often used to isolate
possible sources of signal perturbations that could otherwise follow the
electrical path from the sensor to the processing circuitry. In some
situations, it may be important to isolate the potentially expensive
equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from the sensor.
 Magnetic or optical isolation can be used. Magnetic isolation transforms
the signal from a voltage to a magnetic field so the signal can be
transmitted without physical connection (for example, using a
transformer). Optical isolation works by using an electronic signal to
modulate a signal encoded by light transmission (optical encoding). The
decoded light transmission is then used for input for the next stage of
processing.
Electrical isolation

144
 A surge protector absorbs voltage spikes to protect the next stage from
damage.
 A surge protector (or spike suppressor, or surge suppressor, or surge
diverter) is an appliance or device designed to protect electrical devices
from voltage spikes.
Surge protection

145
Multiplexer
 Multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method by which multiple
analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium.
The aim is to share a scarce resource. For example, in telecommunications,
several telephone calls may be carried using one wire.
 The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel such as a
cable. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the communication channel into
several logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be
transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, extracts the original
channels on the receiver end.
 A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a
device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or
DMX).

146
 Space-division multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing
 Time-division multiplexing
 Polarization-division multiplexing
 Orbital angular momentum multiplexing
 Code-division multiplexing
Multiplexer

147
Telecommunication
 Telecommunication is the exchange of signs, signals, messages, words, writings,
images and sounds or information of any nature by wire, radio, optical or
other electromagnetic systems.
 It occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants
includes the use of technology. It is transmitted through a transmission
medium, such as over physical media, for example, over electrical cable, or
via electromagnetic radiation through space such as radio or light

148
Telecommunication…
Basic elements
Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into wired and wireless
methods. Overall though, a basic telecommunication system consists of three main
parts that are always present in some form or another:
 A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.
 A transmission medium, also called the physical channel that carries the signal.
An example of this is the "free space channel".
 A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable
information for the recipient.

149
 Telecommunication over fixed lines is called point-to-point
communication because it is between one transmitter and one receiver.
 Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast
communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous
low-power but sensitive radio receivers.
 Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have
been designed to cooperate and to share the same physical channel are
called multiplex systems. The sharing of physical channels using multiplexing
often gives very large reductions in costs. Multiplexed systems are laid out in
telecommunication networks, and the multiplexed signals are switched at nodes
through to the correct destination terminal receiver.

152
Transmission media:
• A path through which data is transmitted from one place to another.
• Physical path may be wire, air or vacuum, or optical fiber
• Also called communication channel
• Different media have different properties and used in different
environments for different purposes
• Selection of media depends on the cost, data transfer speed, bandwidth,
distance and security

154
S.NO. GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
1.
The signal energy propagates
through wires in guided media.
The signal energy propagates
through air in unguided media.
2.
Guided media is used for point to
point communication.
Unguided media is generally suited
for radio broadcasting in all
directions.
3.
Discrete network topologies are
formed by the guided media.
Continuous network topologies are
formed by the unguided media.
4.
Signals are in the form of voltage,
current or photons in the guided
media.
Signals are in the form of
electromagnetic waves in unguided
media.
5.
Examples of guided media are
twisted pair wires, coaxial cables,
optical fiber cables.
Examples of unguided media are
microwave or radio links and
infrared light.
6.
By adding more wires, the
transmission capacity can be
increased in guided media.
It is not possible to obtain additional
capacity in unguided media.

158
A. Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each
other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective
sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair
is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic
applications.
Advantages:
 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High speed capacity
Disadvantages:
 Susceptible to external interference
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

159
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external
interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data
channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparitively faster
Disadvantages:
 Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky

162
B. Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each
having a separate insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

163
C. Optical Fibre Cable
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding. It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic
interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
 unidirectional, ie, will need
another fibre, if we need
bidirectional communication

164
Based on the type of the material used, they are classified into two types
1. Glass fiber: Example: Core: SiO2 Cladding: SiO2; Core: GeO2-
SiO2 Cladding: SiO2
2. Plastic fiber: Example: Core: polymethyl methacrylate : Cladding: Co-
Polymer; Core: Polystyrene : Cladding: Methyl methacrylate
Based on the number of modes, they are classified as
1. Single mode fiber ; 2. Multimode fiber
Based on the refractive index profile, they are classified as
1.Step- index fiber 2. Graded index fiber

165
Unguided Media:
 In the unguided media, the signal energy propagates through a wireless
medium.
 Information is transmitted by sending electromagnetic (EM) waves
through atmosphere (free space) and hence the name unguided
media.
 All unguided transmission is classified as wireless transmission.
 The wireless media is used for radio broadcasting in all directions.
 Microwave links are chosen for long distance broadcasting
transmission unguided media.
 A device called antenna is used to transmit and receive EM signals.
 Interference is also a problem in unguided media, overlapping frequency
bands from competing signals can alter or eliminate a signal.

167
S.No.
Frequency band
Name
Frequency
Range (Hz)
Wave length Applications
1
ELF (Extremely Low
Frequencies)
30 – 300 104 km to 103km Power applications
2
VF (Voice
Frequencies)
300 – 3K 103km to 100 km Audio applications
3
VLF (Very Low
Frequencies)
3K – 30 K 100 km – 10 km
Submarine communications,
Navy and Military
communications
4
LF (Low
Frequencies)
30K – 300K
10km – 1 km (Long
waves)
Marine and Aeronautical
communications
5
MF (Medium
Frequencies)
300K – 3M
1km to 100 m
(Medium waves)
AM broadcast, Marine and
Aeronautical communications
6
HF (High
Frequencies)
3M – 30M
100m to 10m (short
waves)
Amateur and CB
communication
7
VHF (Very High
Frequencies)
30M – 300M 10m to 1m FM and TV broadcasting
8
UHF (Ultra High
Frequencies)
300M – 3G
1m to 10cm
(Microwaves)
Cellular phones
UHF TV channels
9
SHF (Super High
Frequencies)
3G – 30G 10-1m to 10-2m
Satellite communications &
RADAR
10
EHF (Extremly High
Frequencies)
30G-300G 10-2m to 10-3m
Satellite communications &
RADAR
Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum

168
MICROWAVES
 Frequencies > 1 GHz is known as microwaves. Microwave signals are used to
transmit data without the use of cables similar to that of radio and TV signals
but at different frequency range. It is line of sight transmission, which means
signal travels in a straight line.
 The transmitter and receiver of a microwave system should be in line-of-sight
because the radio signal cannot bend. With microwave very long-distance
transmission is not possible. In order to overcome the problems of line of sight
and power amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used at intervals of 25 to
30 kilometres between the transmitting and receiving end.
 EM waves ranging from 1GHz to 300 GHz
are known as microwaves.
 Microwaves are used for communication
such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks, and wireless LANs.
 Microwaves travels in straight lines
 Repeaters are necessary for long distance
communications
 Microwaves can’t penetrate through buildings
 Best example is Bluetooth technology

169
INFRARED
 Infrared transmission uses infrared light to send information. Various
applications are: TV remotes, automotive garage doors, wireless
speakers etc. all make use of infrared as transmission media.
 Infrared light transmits messages through the air and can propagate
throughout a room, but will not penetrate walls.
 Infrared signals can be used for short range communication in a
closed area (within room).
 Infrared signals typically used for short distances (within room).
Microwave signals commonly used for longer distances (10’s of km).

170
SATELLITE
 A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer
space (36000 km above earth).
 In satellite communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a
transmitter on earth to the satellite at space. The satellite amplifies the
weak signal and transmits it back to the receiver. The main advantage of
satellite communication is that it is a single microwave relay station visible
from any point of a very large area.
 The most popular frequency band is referred to as 4/6 band.
 Satellite is 36,000 km above the earth. So, point-to-point communication
on the earth will be at 72,000 km. Hence there exists a round trip delay of
270 msec in satellite communication. This poses a number of problems.
 Another interesting property of satellite communication is its broadcast
capability. All stations under the downward beam can receive the
transmission.
 Now-a-days communication satellites are not only used to handle
telephone, telex and television traffic over long distances, but are used to
support various internet based services such as e-mail, FTP, World Wide
Web (WWW), etc.

171
Satellite Features
 It appears stationary from the earth as it rotates with same speed of
earth.
 Capable of receiving, relaying of voice, data and TV signals
 Weather conditions such as clouds, rain, lightning etc., may adversely
affect communication.
 Satellites can provide point-to-point or broadcast services
 Signal from earth to satellite is called uplink. Uplink signal frequency is 6
GHz
 Signal from satellite to earth is called downlink. Downlink signal
frequency is 4 GHz

182
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/communication_technologies/communication_technologies_types_of_networks.htm

183
Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of
security, or geographical range.
PAN
 PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network.
 PAN is the interconnection between devices within the range of a
person’s private space, typically within a range of 10 metres.
 If you have transferred images or songs from your laptop to mobile or
from mobile to your friend’s mobile using Bluetooth, you have set up and
used a personal area network.
A person can connect her laptop, smart
phone, personal digital assistant and
portable printer in a network at home. This
network could be fully Wi-Fi or a
combination of wired and wireless.

184
LAN or Local Area Network
 LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single
site like an office, building or manufacturing unit.
 LAN is set up to when team members need to share software and
hardware resources with each other but not with the outside world.
Typical software resources include official documents, user manuals,
employee handbook, etc. Hardware resources that can be easily
shared over the network include printer, fax machines, modems,
memory space, etc.
 This decreases infrastructure costs for the organization drastically.
A LAN may be set up using
wired or wireless connections.
A LAN that is completely wireless
is called Wireless LAN or
WLAN.

185
MAN
 MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network
spread over a city, college campus or a small region.
 MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread over several kilometres.
 Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software resources,
thereby decreasing infrastructure costs.
 MAN can be built by connecting several LANs.
 The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.

186
WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many
countries.
WAN is typically a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs.
Network is set up using wired or wireless connections, depending on
availability and reliability.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet

187
Network Topology
 The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is
called network topology.
 The topology defines how the devices (computers, printers..etc) are
connected and how the data flows from one device to another.
 There are two conventions while representing the topologies. The
physical topology defines how the devices are physically wired.
The logical topology defines how the data flows from one device
to another.
Broadly categorized into
 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Mesh
 Tree
 hybrid
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/communication_technologies/communication_t
echnologies_network_topologies.htm

188
Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a
network are −
 Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of
setting up an infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between
nodes, location of servers, etc. have to be considered when designing
a network.
 Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow
reconfiguration of office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation
of existing nodes.
 Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has
minimum down time. Failure of one node or a segment of cabling
should not render the whole network useless.
 Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can
accommodate load of new devices and nodes without perceptible drop
in performance.
 Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of
hardware, software and technical personnel requirements.
 Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network
should be easy.

189
Bus topology:
 Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable,
usually coaxial, to which many network devices and workstations are
attached along the length. Server is at one end of the bus. When a
workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with destination
address in its header along the bus.
 The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the
destination terminal sees the data, it copies it to the local disk.
Network Topology …
Advantages of Bus Topology
 Easy to install and maintain
 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single
transmission line
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult as there
is no single point of control
 One faulty node can bring the
whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be
connected to the bus

190
Ring Topology
 In ring topology each terminal is
connected to exactly two nodes,
giving the network a circular shape.
 Data travels in only one pre-
determined direction.
 When a terminal has to send data,
it transmits it to the neighboring
node which transmits it to the next
one.
 Before further transmission data
may be amplified.
 In this way, data raverses the
network and reaches the
destination node, which removes it
from the network. If the data
reaches the sender, it removes the
data and resends it later.

191
Advantages of Ring Topology
 Small cable segments are needed to
connect two nodes
 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in
only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Failure of single node brings down the
whole network
 Troubleshooting is difficult as many
nodes may have to be inspected before
faulty one is identified
 Difficult to remove one or more nodes
while keeping the rest of the network
intact

192
Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is
also called the central node. Any exchange of data between two nodes
must take place through the server. It is the most popular topology for
information and voice networks as central node can process data
received from source node before sending it to the destination node.
Advantages of Star Topology
 Failure of one node does not affect the
network
 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be
detected from central node immediately
 Simple access protocols required as one of
the communicating nodes is always the
central node
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Long cables may be required to connect each
node to the server
 Failure of central node brings down the whole
network

193
Tree Topology
 Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
 It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies.
 Tree topology is also called hierarchical topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 Existing network can be easily
expanded
 Point-to-point wiring for individual
segments means easier installation and
maintenance
 Well suited for temporary networks
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Technical expertise required to
configure and wire tree topology
 Failure of backbone cable brings down
entire network
 Insecure network
 Maintenance difficult for large networks

194
Wireless connection …
 Wireless connection to internet is very common these days.
 Often an external modem is connected to the Internet and other devices
connect to it wirelessly.
 This eliminated the need for last mile or first mile wiring.
 There are two ways of connecting to the Internet wirelessly – Wi-Fi and
WiMAx.

195
Wireless connection
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity.
Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve connection to the Internet without a
direct cable between device and Internet Service Provider.
Wi-Fi enabled device and wireless router are required for setting up a Wi-Fi
connection.
These are some characteristics of wireless Internet connection −
 Range of 100 yards
 Insecure connection
 Throughput of 10-12 Mbps
If a PC or laptop does not have Wi-Fi capacity, it can be added using a Wi-Fi
card.
The physical area of the network which provides Internet access through
Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or
any public space like airport, railway stations, etc. Hotspots themselves are
connected to the network through wires.

196
Wireless connection …
WiMax
 To overcome the drawback of Wi-Fi connections, WiMax (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) was developed.
 WiMax is a collection of wireless communication standards based
on IEEE 802.16.
 WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media access
control (MAC) options.
 These are some of the characteristics of WiMax −
 Broadband wireless access
 Range of 6 miles
 Multilevel encryption available
 Throughput of 72 Mbps
 The main components of a WiMax unit are −
 WiMax Base Station − It is a tower similar to mobile towers and
connected to Internet through high speed wired connection.
 WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU) − It is a WiMax version of wireless
modem. The only difference is that modem is connected to the
Internet through cable connection whereas WiMax SU receives
Internet connection wirelessly through microwaves.

197
S.No Name
1 Pradip Giri IOT and it's components
2 Gopal Acharya IOT and it's components
3 Ravindra lal mul Comparison among different IoT tools
4 Mahendra Poudel Comparison among different IoT tools
5 Sudip Pandey IOT and it's components
6 Rajan Gurung Application of IOT
7 Ishwar Timilsina Application of IOT
8 Mahendra Bhattarai Application of IOT
9 Rajan Ranabhat
Wireless Sensor Network ( WSN) and
application
10 Himal Basnet
application
11 Manisha Paneru
application
12 Madhav Karki Structure of a WSN
13 Usha Kiran Rokaye Structure of a WSN
14 Bharat Wagle Structure of a WSN

Internet of Things
(IoT)
Group Members(GPS):
Gopal Acharya
Pradip Giri
Sudip Pandey
2nd July,2020

IoT Introduction
• System of devices connected to
internet
• Ability to collect & exchange data
from users or environment with no
human intervention
• Devices embedded with electronics,
software & sensor
GPS 201

History of IoT
• Concept popular in 1999 through Auto-ID center at MIT &
related market-analysis publications
• Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) prerequisite for IoT at
that point
• Besides using RFID, tagging of things achieved through such
technologies- Communication, Barcodes, QR codes, bluetooth
& digital watermarking
GPS 202

IoT Working Mechanism
IoT is not the result of single novel technology; instead several
complementary technical development
Bridges the gap between virtual & physical world
Functions
• Communication & cooperation
• Addressability
• Identification
• Sensing
• Actuation
• Localization
• User interfaces
GPS 203

Structure of IoT
Viewed as gigantic network
Consists of networks of devices & computers connected
• Tagging Things: RFID
• Feeling Things: Sensors
• Shrinking things: Nanotechnology
• Thinking things: Embedded Intelligence
GPS 206

Challenges faced by IoT
• Scalability
• Security
• Technical requirements
• Technological standardization
• Software complexity
• Connectivity
• Privacy
GPS 218

Solution to the Challenges
• Government & industry bodies need to set standards &
regulations
• IoT needs strong authentication methods, encrypted data &
platform that can track irregularities in network
GPS 219

Refrences
• https://www.slideshare.net/RohitMahali1/iot-presentation-
73099870?from_m_app=ios&fbclid=IwAR2Jg6VsKMmMDgSd0tbnW1r
qPHefXhATiTpAyhspRGdVKycQFN9_qaUi38Y
• https://www.slideshare.net/NishantKayal/internet-of-things-iot-seminar-
ppt?from_m_app=ios&fbclid=IwAR2GvVDkc4fNJSUvNZCIP2XEFvOm
cJ3lT3tycbgDHl3ftxrJZw3tuwr3bQM
• https://www.slideshare.net/slide_marvels/internet-of-things-iot-slide-
marvels-top-powerpoint-presentation-design-
agency?from_m_app=ios&fbclid=IwAR3RquYk1vsQkXdMlpQ5Zon56U
XTry_FK37cr09i2fuHoYRnNF_L3eLh47I
• https://www.slideshare.net/MohanKumarG/internetofthings-iot-
aseminar-ppt-by-
mohankumarg?from_m_app=ios&fbclid=IwAR0WL_R9r4mzlbEuDcfw-
RLBff8q7NpvnaHXcM0Co45iYukt3F6u0EHrX_w
GPS 221

234
Sensors …
Non-
electrical/Physical
quantities
SENSOR
Electrical
equivalent form

235
Intelligent Systems: Architecture, Design, and Control Alexander M. Meystel,
James S. Albus John Wiley & Sons 2001 ISBN-10: 0471193747
• Intelligence in Natural and Constructed Systems
• Theoretical Fundamentals
• Knowledge Representation
• Reference Architecture
• Motivations, Goals, and Value Judgment
• Sensory Processing
• Behavior Generation
• Planner
• Multiresolutional Planning: A Sketch of the TheoryMultiresolutional
• Hierarchy of Planner/Executor Modules
• Learning
• Applications of Multiresolutional Architectures for Intelligent Systems
Intelligent Systems: Precursor of the New Paradigm in Science and
Engineering

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