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Programming In C++

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Aug. 18, 2013

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Course:- B.C.A & B.SC(IT)
Date:-17-October-2006
SHAMMI KUMAR (B.C.A)

Chapter-1st

Software Crisis
Development in software technology continue to
be dynamic. New tools and techniques are
announced in quick...

of crisis within the industry. The following issues
need to be addressed to face this crisis:
How to represent real-life e...

How to improve the quality of software?
How to manage time schedules?
These studies and other reports on software
implemen...

Reusability
Portability
Security
User friendliness
Procedure-Oriented Programming
In the procedure-oriented approach, the ...

consists of writing a list of instructions (or
actions) for the computer to follow, and
organizing these instructions into...

Global data Global data
Function-1
Local data
Function-2
Local data
Function-3
Local data
Fig. Relationship of Data and Fu...

Some characteristics exhibited by procedure-
oriented programming are:
Emphasis is on doing things (algorithms).
Large pro...

Object-Oriented Programming Paradigm
The major objective of Object-oriented approach
is to remove some of the flaws encoun...

of data and functions in object-oriented programs
is shown in figure below. The data of an object
can be accessed only by ...

known as objects.
• Functions that operate on the data of an
object are tied together in the data structure.
• Data is hid...

Follows bottom-up approach in program
design.
Data
Functions
Object A
Data
Functions
Object B
Functions
Data
Object C
Comm...

It is necessary to understand some of the concepts
used extensively in object-oriented
programming. These include:
1. Obje...

5. Dynamic binding
6. Message passing
1 Objects and Classes:- Objects are the
basic runtime entities in an object-oriented...

The entire set of data and code of an object
can be made a user-defined data type using
the concept of a class.A class may...

Person
Name
BasicPay
Salary ()
Tax ()
Object
Data
Methods
Fig. Representation of an Object

2. Data Abstraction and Encapsulation:-
The wrapping up of data and methods into
a single unit (called class) is known as
...

objects of one class acquire the
properties of objects of another class.
Inheritance supports the concept of
hierarchical ...

derived. Bird
Attributes:
Feathers
Flying Bird
Attributes:
Nonflying Bird
Attributes:
Robin
Attributes:
Swallow
Attributes...

In OOP, the concept of inheritance provides
the idea of reusability. This means that we
can add additional features to an ...

operation may exhibit different behaviour
in different instances. The behaviour
depends upon the types of data used in the...

arguments.
Shape
Draw ( )
Circle Object
Draw ( )
Box Object
Draw ( ) Draw ( )
Triangle Object
Fig. Polymorphism

Dynamic Binding:- Binding refers to the
linking of a procedure call to the code to be
executed in response to the call. Dy...

other. The process of programming in an
object-oriented language, therefore,
involves the following basic steps:
1.Creatin...

by sending and receiving information much
the same way as people pass messages to
one another as shown in fig. below
Objec...

Message passing involves specifying the name
of the object, the name of the method (message)
and the information to be sen...

OOP offers several benefits to both the
program designer and the user.The
principle advantages are:
 Through inheritance,...

working modules that communicate with
one another, rather than having to start
writing the code from scratch. This leads t...

communication between objects make the
interface descriptions with external systems
much simpler.
 Software complexity ca...

Object-Oriented Languages
The languages should support several of the
OOP concepts to claim that they are
object-oriented....

programming that primarily supports
encapsulation and object identity. Major
features that are required for object-based
p...

programming languages. They do not
support inheritance and dynamic binding.
Ada is a typical object-based programming
lang...

Applications of OOP
There appears to be a great deal of excitement
and interest among software engineers in
using OOP. App...

• Object-Oriented Databases
•AI and Expert Systems
• Decision support and office Automation
Systems
It is believed that th...

Chapter-2nd

What is C++
C++ is an object-oriented programming
language. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
at AT&T Bell Laboratorie...

was a major addition to the original C language,
Stroustrup initially called the new language ‘C
with classes’. However, l...

C++ is a superset of C. Most of what we
already know about C applies to C++ also.
The most important facilities that C++ a...

C++ is a versatile (flexible) language for handling
very large programs. It is suitable for virtually any
programming task...

 While C++ is able to map the real-world
problem properly, the C part of C++ gives the
language the ability to get close ...

{
cout<<“C++ is better than c.n”; // C++ statement
return o;
} // end of example
The simple program demonstrates several C...

must have a main(). Like C, the C++ statement
terminate with semicolons.
• Comments :- C++ introduces a new comment
symbol...

// C++ program to illustrate
// Some of its features
The C comment symbols /*,*/ are still valid and
are more suitable for...

• Output Operator :- The statement
cout<<“C++ is better than C.”;
Causes the string in quotation marks to be
displayed on ...

Cout << “C++”
Screen
Object Insertion Operator Variable
Fig. Output using Insertion Operator

• The iostream File :- We have used the following
#include directive in the program:
#include<iostream>
This directive cau...

the beginning of all programs that use
input/output statements. We must include
appropriate header files depending on the
...

The following main without type and return will
run with a warning:
main()
{
--------
--------
}

More C++ Statements
#include<iostream>
int main()
{
float number1, number2, sum, average;
cout<<“Enter two numbers:”;
cin>...

average=sum/2;
cout<<“Sum=“<<sum<<“n”;
cout<<“Average=“<<average<<“n”;
return 0;
}
Structure of C++ Program
A typical C++ ...

It is a common practice to organize a program
into three separate files. The class declarations
Include files
Class declar...

are placed in a header file and the definitions of
member functions go into another file. This
approach enables the progra...

main program known as client. The client uses
the server through the public interface of the
class
Member functions
Class ...

Creating The Source File
Like C programs, C++ programs can be created
using any text editor. For example, on the INIX,
we ...

extension to indicate that it is a C++ program file.
C++ implementations use extensions such as
.c, .C, .cc, .cpp and .cxx...

Compiling and Linking
The process of compiling and linking again
depends upon the operating system. A few
popular systems ...

Turbo C++ and Borland C++ :- It provide an
integrated program development environment
under MS DOS. They provide a built-i...

Chapter-3rd

C++ is a superset of C and therefore most
constructs of C are legal in C++ with their
meaning unchanged. However, there ar...

• Identifiers
• Constants
• Strings
• Operators
Keywords:- The keywords are also the identifiers
but can’t be user-defined...

switch, long, return, goto, short, throw, while,
inline, friend, extern, catch, enum, else,
default, protected, new, signe...

1. String Constant
2. Numeric Constant
3. Character Constant
String Constant:- String constant is a sequence
of alphanumer...

hexadecimal constants and octal constants. An
integer may either be short and long integer.
A floating point constant may ...

• Floating point constants:- It consists of +ve and
–ve numbers but in decimal form. Floating point
consists of three data...

• Hexadecimal Constants:- Hexadecimal
numbers are integer numbers of base 16 and
their digits are 0-9 and A to F. Any hexa...

For Example: ‘A’, ‘a’ etc.
Basic Data Types
Data types are those keywords which shows
what type of variables we are going ...

long int 4 bytes
2. Float data types:- Floating point data types are
used to declare variables of floating types.
Variable...

long double 12-16 bytes
3. Character Data types:- Any character
belonging to the ASCII character set is
considered as a ch...

User-Defined Data Types
Structures and Classes:- C++ also permits us to
define another user-defined data type known as
cla...

list of words by assigning them values 0,1,2 and
so on. This facility provides an alternative means
for creating symbolic ...

Derived Data Types
Arrays:- The application of arrays in C++ is
similar to that in C. The only exception is the way
charac...

should be one larger that the number of
characters in the string.
char string[4]=“xyz”; //O.K. for C++
Functions:- Functio...

used in C++ for memory management and
achieving polymorphism.
Symbolic Constants
There are two ways of creating symbolic
c...

way. However, there are some differences in
implementation. In C++, we can use const in a
constant expression, such as
con...

const y=1;
const z=2;
Declaration of Variables
C++ allows the declaration of a variable
anywhere in the scope. This means ...

The example below illustrates this point.
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
float x; // declaration
floa...

cin>>x;
sum=sum+x;
}
float average; // declaration
average=sum/i;
cout<<average;
getch();
return 0;
}

Dynamic Initialization of Variables
C++, however, permits initialization of the
variables at run time. This is referred to...

Reference Variables
C++ introduces a new kind of variable known as
the reference variable. A reference variable
provides a...

Example: 1.
float total=100;
float sum=total;
2. int n[10];
int &x=n[10]; // x is alias for n[10]
Operators in C++
The dif...

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Assignment operators
3. Comparison operators
4. Logical operators (Relational, Equality,
Logica...

3. Comparison Operators:- The comparison
operators can be grouped into three categories.
They are the Relational operators...

>= Greater than equal to
b). Equality Operators:- Equality operators are
used to check the equality of the given
expressio...

AND logical operators are as under:-
Situation Results
True && True True
True && False False
False && True False
False && ...

True||False True
False||True True
False||False False
• Logical NOT:- Logical NOT can changed the
condition from true to fa...

4. particulars function.
• Unary Operators:- The unary operators
require only a single expression to produce a
line. Unary...

* The pointer operator is used to get
the content of the address
& Address operator is used to get the
address of the vari...

• New and Delete Operator:- New operator is
used for giving memory allocation to an object
and delete is used to remove th...

---------
{
int x=10;
------
------
{
int x=1;
--------
--------
}
---------
}
Block 1
Block 2

Block 2 is contained in block 1.
Note:- A declaration in an inner block hides a
declaration of the same variable in an out...

Program on Scope Resolution Operator
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int m=10; //global m
int main()
{
int m=20; //...

int m=30; //m declared again
// local to inner block
cout<<“We are in inner blockn”;
cout<<“k=“<<k<<“n”;
cout<<“m=“<<m<<“n...

cout<<“::m=“<<::m<<“n”;
getch()
return 0;
}
Memory Management Operators
C uses malloc() and calloc() functions to allocate...

perform the task of allocating and freeing the memory in
a better and easier way.
1. New:- The new operator is used to cre...

For example:-
int *p=new int;
2. Delete:- The delete operator is used to destroy the
space for the variable which has been...

Manipulators
Manipulators are operators that are used to
format the data display. The most commonly
used manipulators are ...

The manipulator setw specifies a field width for
printing the value of the variable. This value is
right-justified within ...

cout<<setw(5)<<“basic”<<setw(5)<<basic<<endl
<<setw(5)<<“allowance”<<setw(5)<<allowance<<endl
<<setw(5)<<“total”<<setw(5)<...

convert one data type to another. The operator
used for type casting is called as the cast
operator and the process is cal...

Expressions and their Types
An expression is a combination of operators, constants
and variables arranged as per the rules...

•Relational expressions
• Logical expressions
• Bitwise expressions
An expression may also use combination of the
above ex...

Float Expressions:- These are those which, after all
conversions, produce floating-point results.
Pointer Expressions:- Th...

the results compared. Relational expressions are also
known as Boolean expressions.
Logical Expressions:- Logical expressi...

y>>1 //shift one bit position to right
Special Assignment Expressions
1. Chained Assignment:-
x=(y=10);
or
x=y=10;
First 1...

For instance, the statement
float a=b=12.34 //wrong
is illegal. This may be written as
float a=12.34, b=12.34 //correct
2....

y=50;
x=y+10;
3. Compound Assignment:- Like C, C++
supports a compound assignment operator
which is a combination of the a...

assignment operator or short-hand assignment
operator.
Implicit Conversions
We can mix data types in expressions. For
exam...

Operator Overloading
The process of making an operator to exhibit
different behaviours in different instances is
known as ...

Operator Precedence
Although C++ enables us to add multiple
meanings to the operators, yet their association
and precedenc...

Chapter-4th

Introduction
Functions play an important role in program
development. Dividing a program into functions is
one of the majo...

{
------
show(); /*function call*/
-------
}
void show() /*function definition*/
{
--------
-------- /*function body*/
---...

Function Prototyping
Function prototyping is one of the major
improvements added to C++ functions. The
prototype describes...

arguments or the return types will be caught by
the compiler at the time of compilation itself.
Syntax:-
type function_nam...

Call By Reference
Whenever a function with formal arguments is
invoked, the address of the actual arguments are
copied int...

so any change that is made in the formal function
will change the calling function.
For Example:-
void main()
{
int a=10,b...

swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int=temp;
temp=*x;
*x= *y;
*y=temp;
getch();
}

Default Arguments
C++ allows us to call a function without specifying
all its arguments. In such cases, the function
assig...

float value(int p,int b,float r=5.13);
amount=value(50,5);
cout<<“nfinal value=“<<amount<<“n;
}
float value(int p,int n,fl...

getch();
return(temp);
}
Function Overloading
It is a logical method of calling several functions
with different arguments...

Easy maintenance of the data.
The function declaration and function definition
are essential for each function with same n...

compiler for comparing the types of actual
parameters with formal parameters.
Function Overloading with Arguments
A functi...

Program on Function Overloading:-
void main()
{
int square(int);
float square(float);
int x, xsqr;
float y, ysqr;
cout<<“E...

xsqr=square(x);
cout<<xsqr;
ysqr=square(y);
cout<<ysqr;
}
int square(int a)
{
return(a*a);
}

float square(float a)
{
return(a*a);
}
getch();
}
Friend Function
Friend function are the functions that are used to
have ...

a special mechanism for letting a non-member
function access private data. A friend function
may be either declared are de...

• Since it is not in the scope of the class, it cannot
be called using the object of that class.
• It can be invoked like ...

Program on Friend Function:-
class sample
{
int x;
public:
void getdata();
friend void display(sample);
};
void sample::ge...

{
cout<<“Enter a value of x”;
cin>>x;
}
void display(sample s)
{
cout<<“Entered no. is”;
cout<<s.x;
cout<<endl;

}
void main()
{
sample s;
s.getdata();
display(s);
getch();
}

Inline Functions
It is used only in function declaration to give a
hint to the compiler that inline substitution of the
fu...

inline return_type functionname (argument list)
}
Advantages:-
• The size of the object code is reduced.
• The speed of ex...

Program on Inline Functions:-
inline int mul(int x,int y)
{
return(x*y);
}
inline int div(int p,int q)
{
return(p/q);

}
int main()
{
int a=9;
int b=9;
clrscr();
cout<<mul(a,b)<<“n”;
cout<<div(a,b)<<“n”;

getch();
return 0;
}
Virtual Function
A virtual function is one that does not really exist
but it appears real in some par...

keyword virtual is used in the method while it is
declared in the class definition but not in the
member function definiti...

$statements; public: virtual return_type function_name(arguments); }; For example: class base { public: void display()$

{
cout<<“Display base”;
}
virtual void show()
{
cout<<“Show base”;
}
};
class derived:public base

{
public:
void display()
{
cout<<“Display derived”;
}
void show()
{
cout<<“Show derived”;

}
};
void main()
{
base b;
derived d;
base *ptr;
ptr=&b;
(*ptr).display();

(*ptr).show;
ptr=&d;
(*ptr).display();
(*ptr).show();
getch();
}

Chapter-5th

Class
A class is a derived data type that groups related
data items called data members and the
functions called member fu...

member function declarations;
public:
data member declarations;
member function declarations;
};
The variables declared in...

Thus a class is a technique to bind the data and
the associated functions together. This binding of
data and functions in ...

private data members. The private data members
are not accessible to the outside world.
•Protected scope:- In this section...

Program:-
class student
{
public:
int rollno;
char name[10];
void display()
{
cout<<“Enter your name”;

cin>>name;
cout<<“n Enter your RollNo”;
cin>>rollno;
}
};
void main()
{
student s;
cout<<“Enter name and RollNo”;

cin>>s.name;
cin>>s.rollno;
cout<<“s.name and s.rollno”;
}
void display()
{
cout<<“name”<<name;
cout<<“Rollno”<<rollno;
}

};
Defining Member Functions
The member functions of a class are also called
class functions. These functions may be
defin...

int number;
float cost;
public:
void putdata(int a,int b)
{
cout<<“enter the values of a and b”;
cin>>a>>b;
}
};

• Outside the class declaration, with function
declaration in the class.
Syntax:-
datatype specifier classname:: functionn...

2. The appearance of class name before the
function name allows a user to use identical
function names for different class...

class set
{
int m,n;
public:
void input();
void display();
int largest();
};
int set::largest()

{
if(m>=n)
return(m);
else
return(n);
}
void set::input()
{
cout<<“Input values of m and nn”;

cin>>m>>n;
}
void set::display()
{
cout<<“nlargest value=“<<largest();
}
int main()
{
set a;

a.input();
a.display();
return 0;
}
Static Data Members
The static variables are automatically initialized to
zero unless ...

same as that of normal data member.
 Whenever a static data member is declared it
will be shared by all instance of the c...

 It is also not a part of the objects of the class.
Program on static data member:-
class sample
{
static int count;
publ...

int sample::count=0;
sample::sample
{
++count;
}
void sample::display()
{
cout<<“Counter value=“<<count<<endl;
}

void main()
{
sample obj1,obj2;
obj2.display();
}
Program on Static member function:-
class sample
{
static int count;

public:
sample();
static void display();
};
int sample::count=0;
sample::sample()
{
++count;
}

void sample::display()
{
cout<<count;
}
void main()
{
sample::display();
sample obj1,obj2,obj3;
sample::display();

getch();
}
Arrays of Objects
An array can be of any data type including struct.
Similarly, we can also have arrays of vari...

float age;
public:
void getdata();
void putdata();
};
void employee::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter name:”;
cin>>name;

cout<<“Enter age:”;
cin>>age;
}
void employee::putdata()
{
cout<<“name:”<<name<<“n”;
cout<<“age:”<<age<<“n”;
}
const int s...

int main()
{
employee manager[size];
for(int i=0;i<size;i++)
{
cout<<“nDetails of manager”<<i+1;<<“n”;
manager[i].getdata(...

{
cout<<“nManager”<<i+1<<“n”;
manager[i].putdata();
}
getch();
return 0;
}

Memory Allocation For Objects
We have stated that the memory space for
objects is allocated when they are declared and
not...

object. Separate memory locations for the objects
are essential, because the member variables will
hold different values f...

The first method is called pass-by-value. Since
a copy of the object is passed to the function, any
changes made to the ob...

Program on call-by-value:-
void main()
{
int x,y;
void swap(int,int);
x=100;
y=20;
cout<<“Values before swap()”<<endl;
cou...

swap(x,y); //call by value
cout<<“values after swap()”<<endl;
cout<<“x=“<<x<<“and y=“<<y<<endl;
}
void swap(int x,int y) /...

y=temp;
}
Program on pass-by-reference:-
void main()
{
int x,y;
void swap(int *x,int *y);
x=100;
y=20;

cout<<“Values before swap()”<<endl;
cout<<“x=“<<x<<“and y=“<<y<<endl;
swap(&x,&y); //call by reference
cout<<“values after...

temp=*x;
*x=*y;
*y=temp;
}
Returning Objects
A function cannot only receive objects as
arguments but also can return them....

class complex
{
float x;
float y;
public:
void input(float real,float imag)
{
x=real;
y=imag;

}
friend complex sum(complex,complex);
void show(complex);
};
complex sum(complex c1,complex c2)
{
complex c3; //object c3...

return(c3); //returns object c3
}
void complex::show(complex c)
{
cout<<c.x<<“+j”<<c.y<<“n”;
}
int main()
{
complex A,B,C;

A.input(3.1,5.65);
B.input(2.75,1.2);
C=sum(A,B); //C=A+B
cout<<“A=“;
A.show(A);
cout<<“B=“;
B.show(B);
cout<<“C=“;
C.show...

return 0;
}

Chapter-6th

It is a special member function used for
automatic initialization of an object. Whenever an
object is created, the constru...

•It may not be static and virtual.
• It should have public or protected access within
the class and only in rare circumsta...

protected:
----------
---------
public:
username(); //constructor
----------
----------
};
username::username()

{
--------
----------
}
Program:-
class sample
{
int m,n;
public:

sample(int,int);
void display();
};
sample::sample(int x,int y)
{
m=x;
n=y;
}
void sample::display()
{

cout<<m<<n;
}
void main()
{
sample s(100,20);
s.display()
getch();
}

Default Constructor
It is special member function invoked
automatically by C++ compiler without any
arguments for initiali...

protected:
----------
---------
public:
username(); //default constructor
----------
----------
};
username::username() //...

{
--------
----------
}
Program:-
class student
{
private:
char name[20];

long int rollno;
char sex;
float height;
float weight;
public:
student(); //constructor
void display();
};
student::studen...

{
name[0]=‘0’;
rollno=0;
sex=‘0’;
height=0;
weight=0;
}
void student::display()
{

cout<<“name=“<<name<<endl;
cout<<“rollno=“<<rollno<<endl;
cout<<“sex=“<<sex<<endl;
cout<<“height=“<<height<<endl;
cout<<“w...

cout<<“demonstration of default constructorn”;
a.display();
}
Copy Constructor
These are always used when the compiler has...

Syntax:-
classname::classname(classname &ptr)
Program:-
class code
{
int id;
public:
code()

}
code(int a)
{
id=a;
}
code(code &x)
{
id=x.id;
}

void display()
{
cout<<id;
}
};
void main()
{
code a(20);
code b(a);

code c=a;
a.display();
b.display();
c.display();
getch();
}

Destructor
It is a function that is automatically executed
when an object is destroyed. Its primary use is
to release the ...

4. It takes no arguments and therefore can’t be
overloaded.
5. It should have a public access.
Syntax:-
class classname
{
...

Program:-
int count=0;
class alpha
{
public:
alpha()
{
count++;
cout<<“no. of objects created<<count;

}
~alpha()
{
cout<<“no. of objects destroyed”<<count;
count--;
}
};
int main()
{

alpha a1,a2,a3,a4;
{
alpha a5;
}
{
alpha a6;
}
cout<<“reenter main”;
getch();

return 0;
}
Dynamic Initialization Of Objects
Class objects can be initialized dynamically
too. That is to say, the initia...

Dynamic Constructors
The constructors can also be used to
allocate memory while creating objects. This
will enable the sys...

Chapter-7th

It is logical method of calling several functions
with different arguments and data types that
perform basically identical...

name but different arguments.
Function Overloading with Various Data Types:-
It allows to use the same function name for v...

arguments in the function call.
Scoping Rules for Function Overloading :-
The overloading mechanism is acceptable only
wit...

debug. Only predefined C++ operators can be
overloaded.
Syntax:-
return_type operator operator-to-be
operated(parameters)
...

Rules for Operator Overloading:-
1. Only predefined C++ operators can be
overloaded.
2. Users can’t change any operator te...

Unary Operator like (++,--) takes no formal
arguments when overloaded by member
functions. They take single arguments when...

Program on Overloading Unary Minus:-
class space
{
int x;
int y;
int z;
public:
void getdata(int a,int b, int c);
void dis...

void operator-(); //Overload Unary minus
};
void space::getdata(int a,int b,int c)
{
x=a;
y=b;
z=c;
}
void space::display()

{
cout<<x<<“ “;
cout<<y<<“ “;
cout<<z<<“n“;
}
void space::operator-()
{
x=-x;
y=-y;

z=-z;
}
int main()
{
space s;
s.getdata(10,-20,30);
cout<<“s:”;
-s;
cout<<“s:”;

s.display();
getch();
return 0;
}
Program on Function Overloading:-
void main()
{
int a,b;
float x;

void area(int);
void area(int ,int);
void area(int,float);
cout<<“Enter the side of square”;
cin>>a;
area(a);
cout<<“n Ent...

cout<<“n Enter the sides of triangle”;
cin>>a>>x;
area(a,x);
getch();
}
void area(int b,float h)
{
float t;
t=1/2*b*h;

cout<<“Area of Triangle=“;
cout<<t;
}
void area(int l,int b)
{
int r;
r=l*b;
cout<<“n Area of Rectangle=“;
cout<<r;

}
void area(int f)
{
int s;
s=f*f;
cout<<“n Area of Square=“;
cout<<s;
}

In certain situations, some variables are
declared as integers but sometimes it may be
required to get the result as float...

$m=x; convert x to an integer before its value is assigned to m. Thus the fractional part is truncated. The type conversion...$

3. Conversions from one class type to another
class type.
Program on Overloading Binary
Operators:-
class complex
{
float ...

x= real;
y=imag;
}
complex operator+(complex);
void display();
};
complex complex::operator+(complex c)
{
complex temp;

temp.x=x+c.x;
temp.y=y+c.y;
return(temp);
}
void complex::display()
{
cout<<x<<“+j”<<y;
}
void main()

{
complex c1,c2,c3;
c1=complex(2.5,3.5);
c2=complex(3.6,2.1);
c3=c1+c2;
cout<<“c1=“;
c1.display();
cout<<“c2=“;
c2.display...

cout<<“c3=“;
c3.display();
getch();
}
Overloading Binary Operators using
Friends class complex
{
float x;
float y;

public:
complex()
{}
complex(float real,float imag)
{
x=real;
y=imag;
}
friend complex operator+(complex,complex);

void display();
};
complex operator+(complex c1,complex c2)
{
complex c3;
c3.x=c1.x+c2.x;
c3.y=c1.y+c2.y;
return(c3);
}

void complex::display()
{
cout<<c.x<<“+j”<<c.y;
}
void main()
{
complex A,B,C;
A=complex(2.5,3.1);
B=complex(6.2,1.9);

C=A+B;
cout<<“A=“;
A.display();
B.display();
C.display();
getch();
}

Chapter-8th

Inheritance is the process by which objects of
one class acquire the properties of the objects of
another class. Inheritan...

A derived class with only one base class is
called as Single Inheritance. One class with
several base classes is called Mu...

A derived class can be defined by specifying its
relationship with the base class in addition to its
own details. The gene...

The colon indicates that the derived class name is
derived from the base class name. The visibility
mode is either private...

{
Members of abc;
};
When a base class is privately inherited by a
derived class, public members of the base class
become ...

members of the derived class and therefore they
are accessible to the objects of the derived class.
Single Inheritance is ...

{
members of the derived class
};
Program On Single Inheritance:-
class basic
{
private:
char name[20];
int rollno;

public:
void getdata();
void display();
};
class sample:public basic
{
private:
float height;
float weight;

public:
void getdata();
void display();
};
void basic::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter name and Rollno”;
cin>>name>>rollno;
}

void basic::display()
{
cout<<name<<rollno;
}
void sample::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter height and weight”;
cin>>height>>weigh...

void sample::display()
{
cout<<height<<weight;
}
void main()
{
sample s;
s.getdata();
s.display();

The process of deriving a class from another
derived class is called as Multilevel Inheritance.
The class A serves as a ba...

Intermediate base class since provides a link for
the inheritance between A and C. The ABC chain
is known as Inheritance P...

{
----------
};
class C:public B
{
--------
};

Program on Multilevel Inheritance:-
class student
{
protected:
int rollno;
public:
void getnumber();
void shownumber();
};

void student::getnumber()
{
cout<<“Enter rollno”;
cin>>rollno;
}
void student::shownumber()
{
cout<<rollno;
}

class test:public student
{
protected:
float sub1;
float sub2;
public:
void getmarks();
void putmarks();
};

void test::getmarks()
{
cout<<“Enter sub1”<<endl;
cin>>sub1;
cout<<“Enter sub2”<<endl;
cin>sub2;
}
void test::putmarks()
{...

class result:public test
{
private:
float total;
public:
void display();
};
void result::display()
{

total=sub1+sub2;
shownumber();
putmarks();
cout<<“Total=“<<total;
}
void main()
{
result r;
r.getnumber();

r.getmarks();
r.display();
getch();
}

A class can inherit the attributes of two or more
classes. This is known as Multiple Inheritance. In
other words, a class ...

body of D
};
Program on Multiple Inheritance:-
class m
{
protected:
int m;
public:
void getm();

};
class n
{
protected:
int n;
public:
void getn();
};
class p:public m,public n

{
public:
void display();
};
void m::getm()
{
cout<<“Enter m”;
cin>>m;
}

}
void n::getn()
{
cout<<“Enter n”;
cin>>n;
}
void p::display()
{
cout<<m<<endl;

cout<<n<<endl;
cout<<m*n;
}
void main()
{
p p1;
p1.getm();
p1.getn();
p1.display();

getch();
}
The situation where all the three kinds of
inheritance namely multilevel, multiple and
hierarchical are invoked...

Grandparent
Parent 1 Parent 2
Child
Fig. Multipath Inheritance

The ‘child’ has two direct base classes ‘parent1’
and ‘parent2’ which themselves have a common
base class ‘grandparent’. T...

‘grandparent’. This introduces ambiguity and
should be avoided.
The duplication of inherited members due to
these multiple...

---------
};
class B1:virtual public A //parent1
{
---------
---------
};
class B2:public virtual A //parent2
{

--------
--------
};
class C:public B1,public B2 //child
{
------- //only one copy of A
------- //will be inherited
};
Whe...

that class is inherited, regardless of how many
inheritance paths exist between the virtual base
class and a derived class...

{
cout<<“Enter Rollno”;
cin>>rollno;
}
void putnumber()
{
cout<<rollno;
}
};

class test:virtual public student
{
protected:
float sub1,sub2;
public:
void getmarks()
{
cout<<“Enter sub1”;
cin>>sub1;

cout<<“Enter sub2”;
cin>>sub2;
}
void putmarks()
{
cout<<sub1<<sub2;
}
};
class sports: public virtual student

{
protected:
Float score;
public:
void getscore()
{
cout<<“enter score”;
cin>>score;
}

void putscore()
{
cout<<score;
}
};
class result:public test,public sports
{
float total;
public:

void display();
};
void result::display()
{
total=sub1+sub2;
putmarks();
putnumber();
putscore();
cout<<“total=“<<total;

}
void main()
{
result r;
r.getnumber();
r.getscore();
r.getmarks();
r.display();
getch(); }

An abstract class is one that is not used to create
any objects. An abstract class is a class which
consists of pure virtu...

private:
int x,y;
public:
virtual void getdata();
virtual void display();
};
class base2:public base1
{
private:

int rollno;
char name[20];
public:
void getdata();
void display();
};
void base1::getdata()
{
}

void base1::display()
{
}
void base2::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter rollno and name”;
cin>>rollno>>name;
}
void base2::display()

{
cout<<rollno<<name;
}
void main()
{
base1 *ptr;
base2 b;
ptr=&b;
(*ptr).getdata();

(*ptr).display();
getch();
}
Inheritance can be used to modify a class when it did
not satisfy the requirements of a parti...

Account
Saving account Current account
Fixed-deposit account
Short-term
Medium-term
Long-term

There should be situations where we need to apply two
or more types of inheritance to design a program. For
instance, cons...

Student
Test
Result
Sports
Fig. Multilevel, multiple inheritance

Program on Hybrid Inheritance:-
class student
{
protected:
int rollno;
public:
void getnumber(int a)
{
rollno=a;

}
void putnumber()
{
cout<<“rollno=“<<rollno<<“n”;
}
};
class test:public student
{
protected:

float part1,part2;
public:
void getmarks(float x,float y)
{
part1=x;
part2=y;
}
void putmarks()
{

cout<<“marks obtained”<<“n”;
cout<<“part1=“<<part1<<“n”;
cout<<“part1=“<<part2<<“n”;
}
};
class sports
{
protected:
float ...

public:
void getscore(float s)
{
score=s;
}
void putscore()
{
cout<<“sports wt:”<<score<<“nn”;
}

};
class result:public test,public sports
{
float total;
public:
void display();
};
void result::display()
{

total=part1+part2+score;
putnumber();
putmarks();
putscore();
cout<<total=“<<total<<n”;
}
int main()
{
result r;

r.getnumber(1234);
r.getmarks(27.5,33.0);
r.getscore(6.0);
r.display();
getch();
return 0;
}

The constructors play an important role in
initializing objects. We did not use them earlier in
the derived classes for th...

Note:- While applying inheritance we usually
create objects using the derived class. Thus, it
makes sense for the derived ...

$public: alpha(int i) { x=i; cout<<“alpha initializedn”; } void show_x() { cout<<“x= “<<x<<“n”;$

}
};
class beta
{
float y;
public:
beta(float j)
{
y=j;

$cout<<“beta initializedn”; } void show_y() { cout<<“y= “<<y<<“n”; } }; class gamma:public beta,public alpha {$

$int m,n; public: gamma(int a,float b,int c,int d):alpha(a),beta(b) { m=c; n=d; cout<<“gamma initializedn”; } void show_mn()$

{
cout<<“m= “<<m<<“n”;
cout<<“n= “<<n<<“n”;
}
};
int main()
{
gamma g(5,10.75,20,30);
cout<<“n”;

g.show_x();
g.show_y();
g.show();
getch();
return 0;
}

Chapter-9th

Nesting of Classes
Inheritance is the mechanism of deriving certain
properties of one class into another. This is
implemen...

{
private:
int x1;
int x2;
public:
void fun1();
void fun2();
};
class YY

{
private:
int y1;
XX ox; //Object of class XX
public:
void funy();
};
Class YY has ox as one of it’s members. ox is an
ob...

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define PIE 3.14159
class circle
{
private:
float radius;
public:
float area()

{
float ar;
cout<<“nRadius ?”;
cin>>radius;
ar=PIE*radius*radius;
return(ar);
}
};
class cylinder

{
private:
circle c; //c is an object of class circle
float height;
public:
float float volume()
{
float ar;
float vol;

ar=c.area(); //Member function of class circle
called
cout<<“Height ?”;
cin>>height;
vol=ar*height;
return(vol);
}
};
void...

cylinder c;
cout<<“Volume of the cylinder is “<<c.volume();
}

Chapter-10th

Polymorphism
The word ‘Poly’ means many and the word
‘Morphism’ means form. Therefore it means
many forms. It is a process...

Early Binding
When function is chosen in a normal way,during
the compilation time, it is called as Early
Binding/Static Bi...

member function of base class and derived class
are declared non-virtual and C++ complier takes
only the static Binding by...

Late Binding
Choosing functions during execution time is
called as Late Binding or Dynamic Binding. Late
Binding requires ...

Polymorphism
Compile time
polymorphism
Run time
polymorphism
Function
overloading
Operator
overloading
Virtual
functions

Pointers To Objects
Object pointers are useful in creating objects at
run time. We can also use an object pointer to
acces...

Program to Pointers to Objects:-
class item
{
int code;
float price;
public:
void getdata(int a,float b)
{
code=a;

price=b;
}
void show()
{
cout<<“Code: “<<code<<endl;
cout<<“Price: “<<price<<endl;
}
};
void main()

{
item x;
item *ptr;
ptr=&x;
ptr->getdata(100,25.7);
ptr->show();
getch();
}

this Pointer
A pointer is a variable that holds the memory address of
another variable.”this” pointer is a variable that i...

Program on this pointer:-
class point
{
private:
float x;
float y;
public:
void getxy()
{

cout<<“Coordinates of the point “;
cin>>this->x>>this->y; //Accessing data members
//through pointer this
}
void showxy()
...

void where()
{
cout<<“nAddress of p is “<<this; //Displays the
//address of object
}
};
void main()
{
point p;

p.getxy();
p.showxy();
p.where();
getch();
}

Pointers To Derived ClassesPointers To Derived Classes
We can use pointers not only to the base objects
but also to the ob...

Virtual FunctionsVirtual Functions
A Virtual functions is one that does not really
exist but it appears real in some parts...

information from the keyword Virtual that it is
virtual function and not a conventional functional
declaration.
The genera...

Virtual return_type function_name(arguments);
};
Rules for Virtual Functions:-
They are accessed by using object pointers....

If a Virtual function is defined in the base class,
it need not be necessarily redefined in the
derived class. In such cas...

cout<<“Display base”;
}
Virtual void show()
{
cout<<“Show base”;
}
};
class derived:public base
{

public:
void display()
{
cout<<“Display derived”;
}
void show()
{
cout<<“Show derived”;
}

};
void main()
{
base b;
derived d;
base *ptr;
ptr=&b;
(*ptr).display();
(*ptr).show();

ptr=&d;
(*ptr).display();
(*ptr).show();
getch();
}

Pure Virtual FunctionsPure Virtual Functions
A pure virtual function is a function that is only
declared in the base class...

int x;
float y;
public:
Virtual void getdata();
Virtual void display();
};
class derived:public base
{
int rollno;

char name[2];
public:
void getdata();
void display();
};
void base::getdata()
{
}
void base::display()

{
}
void derived::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter name and rollno”;
cin>>name>>rollno;
}
void derived::display()
{

cout<<rollno;
cout<<name;
}
void main()
{
base *ptr;
derived d;
ptr=&d;
(*ptr).getdata();

(*ptr).display();
getch();
}

Program on Static Binding
class square
{
protected:
int x;
public:
void getdata();
void display();

int area();
};
class rectangle:public square
{
protected:
int y;
public:
void getdata();
void display();

int area();
};
void square::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter the value of side x”n”;
cin>>x;
};
void square::display()
{

cout<<“Value of x=y= “<<x<<endl;
cout<<“Area of the Square= “<<area();
cout<<endl;
}
int square::area()
{
int temp=x*x;
re...

void rectangle::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter the value of sides x and y?n”
cin>>x>>y;
}
void rectangle::display()
{
cout<<“Val...

cout<<“Area of the rectangle= “<<area();
cout<<endl;
}
int rectangle::area()
{
int temp=x*y;
return(temp);
}
void main()

{ square sq;
rectangle rect;
sq *ptr;
ptr=&sq;
ptr=&rect;
ptr->getdata();
ptr->area();
ptr->display();
}

A program to illustrate the Dynamic binding of
member functions of a class
class base
{
private:
int x;
float y;
public:
v...

virtual void display();
};
class derived:public base
{
private:
int rollno;
char name[20];
public:
void getdata();

void display();
};
void base::getdata()
{
cout<<“Enter an integern”;
cin>>x;
cout<<“Enter a real numbern”;
cin>>y;
}

void base::display()
{
cout<<“Entered numbers are x= “<<x<<“ and y=
“<<y;
cout<<endl;
}
void derived::getdata()
{
cout<<“E...

cout<<“Enter name of student?n”;
cin>>name;
}
void derived::display()
{
cout<<“roll number student’s namen”;
cout<<roll no...

{
base *ptr;
derived d;
ptr=&d;
ptr->getdata();
ptr->display();
}

Pointers to Derived Classes
class b
{
public:
int x;
void show()
{
cout<<“x= “<<x<<endl;
};

class d:public b
{
public:
int y;
void show(){
cout<<“y =“<<y<<endl;
cout<<“x= “<<x<<endl;
}
};

void main()
{
b *ptr;
b bc;
ptr=&bc;
(*ptr).x=100;
(*ptr).show();
d dc;
ptr=&dc;

(*ptr).x=200;
(*ptr).show();
d *ptr1;
ptr1=&dc;
(*ptr1).y=300;
(*tr1).show();
getch();
}

Chapter-11th

IntroductionIntroduction
Every program takes some data as input and
generates processed data as output following the
famil...

before really implementing the C++ I/O
operations.
C++ supports all of C’s rich set of I/O functions.
We can use any of th...

C++ StreamsC++ Streams
A stream is a sequence of bytes. It acts either
as a source from which the input data can be
obtain...

Input
device
Output
device
Program
Input stream
Output stream
Extraction from
input stream
Insertion into
output stream
Fi...

The data in the input stream can come from the
keyboard or any other storage device. Similarly,
the data in the output str...

connected to the standard input device (usually
the keyboard) and cout represents the output
stream connected to the stand...

ios
istream streambuf ostream
iostream
istream_withassign iostream_withassign ostream_withassign
pointer
input output
Fig....

ios is the base class for istream (input stream) and
ostream (output stream) which are, in turn, base classes
for iostream...

UNFORMATTED I/O
OPERATIONS
Overloaded Operators >> and <<
We have used the objects cin and cout (pre-
defined in the iostr...

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