Small Ruminant Nutrition Problems and Solutions

SMALL RUMINANT NUTRITION AND
THE PROBLEMS THAT ARISE FROM
POOR NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT
SUSAN SCHOENIAN (Shay-nē-ŭn)
Sheep & Goat Specialist
Western Maryland Research & Education Center
University of Maryland Extension
sschoen@umd.edu - www.sheepandgoat.com
http://www.slideshare.net/schoenian

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION
 Feed accounts for the majority of the cost
of raising sheep and/goats; in fact, as high
as 70% of total production costs.
 Nutrition is the foundation of good health.
 Animals on a higher plane of nutrition are
more resistant to many diseases.
 Nutritional problems are second only to
respiratory problems in frequency of
occurrence.
 Nutrition has a large effect on
reproduction.

NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY ALL SHEEP AND GOATS
 Energy
 Protein
 Minerals
 Vitamins
 Water

ENERGY (CALORIES)
 Nutrient required in the greatest quantity.
 Is usually the most limiting nutrient.
 Comes primarily from carbohydrates and
fats in the diet, but also from excess protein.
 Excess energy is stored as fat in the body.
 Energy is expressed in different ways:
• TDN - total digestible nutrients, %
• DE - digestible energy, kcal
• ME - metabolizable energy, kcal
• NEp - net energy, kcal
• DOM - digestible organic matter, %

IMPROPER FEEDING OF ENERGY TO LIVESTOCK
Not enough energy in diet
 Reduced fertility
 Reduced growth rates
 Reduced milk production
 Loss of body condition, reserves
 Higher critical temperature
 Less cold tolerance
 Reduced resistance to disease.
 Risk of pregnancy toxemia (ketosis)
 Reduced nutrient absorption.
 Increases protein requirements
(%) of ration.
Too much energy in diet
 Wasteful economically
 Over-conditioned (BCS >4.5) animals
have impaired reproduction.
 Fat females are more prone to pregnancy
toxemia and dystocia.
 Feed efficiency decreases once an
animal has reached its optimal finish.
 Excess finish is undesirable to most to
consumers.

PROTEIN (AMINO ACIDS)
 Required in smaller amounts than energy.
 More expensive feed ingredient than energy.
 Amount more important than quality.
 Excess protein is not stored in the body:
excess protein is broken down and used
as energy.
 Some excess protein may be beneficial if parasites
burdens, esp. barber pole worm, are excessive.
 Protein is expressed in different ways:
• CP – crude protein
• DP – digestible protein
• MP – metabolizable protein
• DIP – rumen degraded intake protein
• UIP – undegraded intake protein

CRUDE PROTEIN (CP): N X 6.26
 True or “natural” protein
1. Rumen degraded intake protein (DIP)
Digested in rumen
N  ammonia  microbial protein
2. Undegradable intake protein (UIP)
(bypass or escape protein)
Not digested in rumen.
Digested postruminally (in small intestines) or
excreted in feces.
 Non-protein nitrogen (NPN), e.g. urea

BY-PASS PROTEIN
 A mix of microbial protein and
bypassed dietary protein is desired
for optimal productivity.
 In high-producing animals, it is
recommended that 25-35% of
protein be bypass protein.
 20-30 % of the protein in fresh, high
quality forage is bypass protein.
 Supplementing with bypass protein
may improve productivity and/or
increase resistance to internal
parasites.
Bypass Protein sources
 Low
Soybean meal
 Medium
Cottonseed meal
Dehydrated alfalfa
Distiller’s grains
 High
Corn gluten meal
Fish meal

IMPROPER FEEDING OF PROTEIN TO LIVESTOCK
Not enough protein
 Protein deficiency is rare;
most effects are sub-clinical
 Impaired reproduction
 Reduced growth rates
 Reduced hoof and horn growth.
 Reduced milk production
 Decreased fiber production
 Reduced resistance to disease,
especially parasites.
 Reduced rumen function
 Reduced nutrition absorption
Too much protein
 Expensive and inefficient source of energy.
 Risk of pizzle rot in males
 Can cause metabolic harm
Excess N  ammonia  UREA (BUN)
 Reduces performance, as energy is
required for removal.
 Excess protein has been shown to cause
reproductive problems in cattle .
 Excess N (in manure) can be an environmental
concern (“a resource out-of-place”)

MICRONUTRIENTS
REQUIRED IN SMALL AMOUNTS: OUNCES, GRAMS, INTERNATIONAL UNITS (IU), OR PARTS-PER-MILLION
(PPM).
Minerals
 Macrominerals
Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P)
Salt: sodium and chloride (NaCl)
Potassium (K)
Magnesium (Mg)
Sulfur (S)
 Trace or microminerals
1. Cobalt (Co)
2. Copper (Cu)
3. Fluoride (F)
4. Iron (Fe)
5. Iodine (I)
6. Manganese (Mn)
7. Molybdenum (Mo)
8. Selenium (Se)
9. Zinc (Zn)
Vitamins
 Fat-soluble - A – D – E – K
 Carotene (green forages)  vitamin A
 Sunlight  Vitamin D
 Vitamin E sometimes requires supplementation
 Vitamin K synthesized in rumen
 Water-soluble - B complex – C
 B vitamins synthesized in rumen
 Vitamin C synthesized in tissues

POSSIBLE MICRONUTRIENT PROBLEMS
Deficiencies
 Calcium and phosphorus
rickets
 Calcium
Milk fever
 Copper
Various, including swayback,
stringy wool,
hair color
 Iodine
Goiter
 Magnesium
Grass tetany
Excesses
 Calcium
milk fever
 Copper (esp. sheep)
Chronic or acute toxicity
 Selenium toxicosis
 Sulfur - polio
Imbalances
 Copper, molybdenum, and sulfur
Copper toxicity or deficiency
 Calcium and phosphorus
Urinary calculi
 Salt
Lower feed and water
consumption
 Selenium and Vitamin E
White muscle disease
Various other problems
 Thiamin (B2)
Polioencephamalacia
 Zinc
Wool picking, skin problems,
hoof problems

IMPORTANT NUTRITION INTERACTIONS
 Calcium and phosphorus
Ratio should never go below 1:1
2:1 is ideal for most rations, especially for males
and castrates.
 Cobalt and vitamin B12
 Copper, molybdenum and sulfur
Molybdenum forms insoluble complex with copper
Sulfur binds with molybdenum
 Nitrogen and sulfur
10:1 to 12:1 ratio is ideal
 Energy and protein
Excess protein (N) reduces nutrient absorption
and causes intestinal imbalances.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF SHEEP AND GOATS
Vary by
 Species
 Genetics (type)
 Size (weight)
 Body condition
 Sex
 Age
 Stage and level of production
 Disease
 Environment

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY SPECIES
AND GENETICS
0.50
0.70
0.90
1.10
1.30
1.50
1.70
1.90
2.10
2.30
Angora Boer Local Dairy Lamb
Energy (TDN) requirements, lb/day
66 lb. intact male kids/lamb
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.66
0.09
+
fiber
growth
0.50
0.70
0.90
1.10
1.30
1.50
1.70
1.90
Mature ewe Meat doe Dairy doe Angora doe
Energy (TDN) requirements, lb/day
132 lb. female, maintenance
+
fiber
growth
Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY SIZE (WEIGHT)
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
110-lb 154-lb 198-lb
Energy requirements, lb. TDN/day
Mature ewe, maintenance
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
88-lb 132-lb 154-lb
Mature non-dairy doe, maintenance

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS VARY BY STAGE OF PRODUCTION
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.20
2.40
Maintenance Breeding Early gestation Late gestation Lactation
132-lb. mature non-dairy doe (twins)
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
176-lb. mature ewe (twins)

PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS VARY BY STAGE OF PRODUCTION
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
Protein requirements, lb/day
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
Maintenance Breeding Early
gestation
Late gestation Lactation
Protein requirements, lb/day
132-lb. non-dairy doe (twins)

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS VARY BY STAGE AND
LEVEL OF PRODUCTION
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Maintenance Breeding Early gestation Late gestation Early lactation
Mineral requirements, g/d
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Maintenance Breeding Early gestation Late gestation Early lactation
Mineral requirements, g/d
132-lb non-dairy doe (twins)
Calcium
Phosphorus

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY
LEVEL OF PRODUCTION
1.60
1.70
1.80
1.90
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
Single Twins Triplets
132-doe, late gestation
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.20
3.40
Single Twins Triplets
Energy requirements, lb. TDN/d
176-lb. mature ewe, late gestation

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY DESIRED
LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE, E.G. ADG
0.50
0.70
0.90
1.10
1.30
1.50
1.70
No gain 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55
44-lb. intact Boer buckling
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
0.44 0.55 0.66 0.88
66-lb. ram lamb, 4 mos. early maturing

COMMON NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
 Acidosis
 Bloat
 Copper toxicity
 Enterotoxemia
 Floppy kid syndrome
 Milk fever
 Polioencephalomalacia
 Pregnancy toxemia
 Scours (diarrhea)
 Urinary calculi
 White muscle disease

ACIDOSIS
ruminal lactic acidosis, grain overload, grain poisoning, engorgement
 Develops as a result of animals consuming too much
carbohydrates; primarily grain, sometimes by-
product feed (often accidental consumption).
 Results in lowered rumen pH
 Can be life threatening
clinical vs. subclinical (which goes unnoticed).
 More common in sheep than goats and cattle.
 Symptoms: simple indigestion, discomfort, anorexia,
diarrhea, teeth grinding, muscle twitching, laminitis,
and ruminal stasis (and death).
 Treatment: depends upon severity of symptoms,
sodium bicarbonate, antacids, antibiotics, IV fluids,
surgery
 Prevention: introduce grains slowly to diet, add
dietary buffers, feed ionophores, feed whole grains,
have roughage in diet, free choice sodium
bicarbonate.

BLOAT
rumen tympany
 Form of indigestion caused by excessive accumulation of gas in
rumen.
 Symptoms
Can be life threatening
Distended rumen (left side)
Pain and discomfort
Anxiety
Labored breathing
Staggering and recumbancy
Death
 Treatment (depends upon severity)
Emergency rumenotomy
Insertion of rumen trocar
Passage of stomach tube
Administration of anti-foaming agent
(vegetable oil, mineral oil, polaxalene)
Antacid drench
Force animal to burp

TYPES OF BLOAT
Frothy
Pasture
 Common in
animals
consuming
legume-dominant
pastures
(especially alfalfa
and clover) and
green chop,
cereal grains, and
wet spring grass.
Frothy
Feedlot
 Occurs in animals
consuming high
grain diets,
especially finely
ground rations.
Free gas
or dry
bloat
 Animal is unable
to eructate.
 Often caused by
an obstruction.
 Can also be the
result of posture,
e.g. cast.
Abomasal
 Occurs in mostly
in artificially
reared lambs and
kids.
 Cause not known:
believed to be
caused by a
build-up of
bacteria in the
stomach.

PREVENTION OF BLOAT
Pasture bloat
 Gradual introduction to pasture
 Restrict intake by feeding hay before
grazing
 Mixed swards of grass and legumes
 Anti-foaming agents
 Ionophores
Abomasal
 Small meals
 Self-feeding
 Cold milk
 Add yogurt or
probiotics to milk
 Vaccination for
enterotoxemia
Feed lot bloat
 Gradual introduction of
concentrates to diet
 Don’t feed finely ground feeds
 Whole grain feeding
 Roughage in diet
 Anti-foaming agents
 Ionophores

COPPER TOXICITY
 Sheep are most susceptible.
 Goats are more susceptible than cattle and pigs
 Can be acute or chronic
 Toxicity occurs when copper accumulates in liver to exceed
1000 mg Cu/kg DM
 Breed differences exist.
 Many factors affect copper metabolism.
 Copper aborption more important than concentration in
feed; influenced by type of diet and level of Mo, S, Fe, and
to a lesser extent Ca and Zn.
 70-75% aborption rate in newborn ruminants
 < 10 perent in adults
 Copper has many antagonists

SOURCES OF COPPER IN DIET
 All feeds and forages contain copper.
 Sources which provide supplemental
Cu
 Minerals formulated for other species.
 Complete feeds or supplements formulated for
other species.
 Some by-product feeds contain higher levels
of copper or copper antagonists.
 Pastures that have been fertilized with poultry
or pig manure.
 Footbaths containing copper (copper sulfate)
 Water (especially copper pipes)

WHAT ABOUT COPPER DEFICIENCY?
 More common in goats; can occur in sheep.
 Non-specific signs: ill thrift, scouring, rough, dull
hair coat, anemia, and poor performance (milk,
growth, and reproductive)
 More specific symptoms: swayback (enzootic
ataxia), poor wool quality (steely or stringy wool),
and loss of hair color.
 Copper deficiency should be confirmed with
diagnostic testing.
 Copasure® (Animax) and UltraCruz® (Santa
Cruz) boluses are a means to provide
supplemental copper to small ruminants. They
may also have an inhibitory affect on the barber
pole worm.
 Producers should consult with a nutritionist and/or
veterinarian before providing supplemental copper
to their animals, especially sheep.

ENTEROTOXEMIA
OVEREATING DISEASE, PULPY KIDNEY DISEASE
 There are several enterotoxemias (clostridium perfringins)
that can affect small ruminants. Type C and especially D
are most important.
 Bacteria are normal inhabitant of gut. They bacteria
proliferate, they produce a toxin.
 Disease is usually triggered by change in diet, usually an
increase in the amount of grain, supplement, milk, milk
replacer, and/or grass (feeds that are rich in starch, sugar
and/or protein).
 Heavy infestations of tapeworms can predispose lambs to
enterotoxemia.
 Death is usually sudden.
 Treatment (rarely effective) includes anti-toxin and
antibiotics,
 Prevention includes vaccination of females (in late
gestation) and offspring and good feeding management.

VACCINATION FOR ENTEROTOXEMIA
 It is recommended that all sheep and goats be vaccinated
for clostridial diseases with either the 3, 7, or 8 way
vaccine.
 Pregnant females should be vaccinated approximately one
month prior to parturition with the toxoid.
 If females have never been vaccinated or their vaccination
status is unknown, they will require two injections,
approximately 3-4 weeks apart, followed by an annual
booster.
 Lambs/kids that consume sufficient colostrum will acquire
passive immunity, which will begin to wane at approximately 6
weeks.
 Lambs and kids should be vaccinated at approximately 6-8
and 10-12 weeks of age; earlier vaccinations can be given to
offspring from unvaccinated dams or who did not consume
adequate colostrum.
 Feeder lambs/kids should receive two CDT vaccinations.
 The antitoxin can be given in the event of an outbreak and/or
during periods of high risk.

FLOPPY KID SYNDROME (FKS)
fading kid syndrome
 First reported in 1987. Cause unknown
 Affects kids 3-10 days of age (normal at birth)
They exhibit metabolic acidosis (low blood pH) and have
elevated d-lactate.
 Symptoms: depression, weakness, flaccid paralysis, and
distension of abdomen.
 Differential diagnosis: enterotoxemia, white muscle disease,
abomasal bloat, and septicemia
 Treatment: early detection, remove milk from diet, IV or oral
administration of sodium bicarbonate, supportive care
 No prevention
Research showed that milk ingestion plays a central role.
Hand-rearing and feeding bovine colostrum/milk or milk
replacer can prevent disease (Germany, Italy).

LISTERIOSIS
circling disease
 Central nervous system and digestive system
infection caused by bacteria Listeria
monocytogenes.
 Commonly associated with feeding of spoiled
silage; otherwise occurs sporadically.
 Small ruminants more susceptible.
 Causes neurological symptoms: encephalitis,
depression, anorexia, disorientation, head tilt,
circling, and facial paralysis; can cause abortion
in females.
 Differential diagnoses: polio, rabies, pregnancy
toxemia, brain abscess, ear infection, meningeal
worm.
 Treatment: early intervention with high doses of
antibiotics (Penicillin G) and supportive care. http://www.shesafarmer.com/blog/sick-goat-saga-listerios

MILK FEVER
parturient paresis, hypocalcaemia
 Deficiency of calcium (Ca) in bloodstream
 Can occur before or after parturition.
 Caused by inadequate (or excess intake) of calcium
during late pregnancy
 Symptoms: stiff uncoordinated gait, muscling
trembling, weakness, bloat, depressed rumen
motility, recumbancy, hind legs bent behind, and
death.
 Differential diagnosis: pregnancy toxemia
 Treatment: depends upon progression (severity),
usually IV injection of calcium borogluconate, with
oral or SQ administration of calcium to prevent
relapse. Also treat for pregnancy toxemia.
 Prevention: proper amount of calcium in diet (green
leafy legume hay, limestone are good sources of
calcium) minimal handling of pregnant females

POLIOENCEPHALOMALACIA
PEM, polio, cerebrocortical necrosis, thiamine deficiency Metabolic disorder with neurological symptoms.
 Associated with thiamine status and/or high sulfur
intake.
 Thiamine deficiency caused by inadequate
production by rumen or factors that interfere with
action of thiamine.
 Sulfur-related PEM due to high sulfur intake
 Can occur on pasture, but animals on concentrate
diets
(↓ rumen pH) are most susceptible.
 Can also result from prolonged treatment with
Corid® (thiamine inhibitor).
 Acute: blindness, star gazing, followed by
recumbency,.
Subacute: separation, stop eating, twitching of ears
and face, head held upright.
 Differential diagnosis: pregnancy toxemia,
enterotoxaemia, and listeriosis, rabies, tetanus, CAE,
and plant poisoning.

PREGNANCY TOXEMIA
lambing paralysis, twin lamb disease, pregnancy ketosis
 Affects females during late pregnancy (1-3 weeks)
 Caused by a deficiency of energy (TDN) during late
pregnancy (often indicative of a flock/herd nutrition
problem).
 Females carrying multiple fetuses are most prone; fat
females also susceptible.
 During early stages of disease, can treat with oral propylene
glycol; it may also be prudent to induce parturition (Rx).
 Treatment of advanced cases is usually less rewarding and
may require an emergency caesarian section.
 Differential diagnosis: milk fever
 Prevent with good feeding management
BCS’s of >2.5 during late gestation
Grain feeding during late gestation to meet increased
energy requirements, especially for multi-bearing females.

DIARRHEA (SCOURS)
Increased frequency, fluidity, or volume of fecal excretion
 Many causes: bacterial, viral, parasites, diet, and
stress.
 Accounted for 46% of lamb losses in study at US
Sheep Experiment Station.
 In younger lambs/kids, e. coli is most common
cause of scours.
 In older lambs/kids, GI parasites, especially
coccidia, are most common causes of diarrhea.
 In adults, most scours are self-limiting.
 Often a symptom of other illness, e.g. acidosis,
enterotoxemia, Johne’s disease, and plant toxins.
 Treatment depends upon cause: anti-diarrheal
medications, anti-coccidial medications, antibiotics,
anthelmintics, probiotics, and electrolytes
(hydration).

URINARY CALCULI
urolithiasis, water belly, stones
 Common metabolic disease of male sheep
and goats, especially wethers.
 Calculi stones, usually phosphate salts,
lodge in urinary tract and prevent urination
 Primary cause of urinary calculi is high
grain-low roughage diets, with an imbalance
of calcium to phosphorus.
 Rations high in phosphorus and magnesium
 Stones can also be composed of other
minerals, depending upon diet (e.g. calcium
rich diets).
 Affected animals strain to pass urine and
stand with arched back.
 Treatment depends upon location of
obstruction and progression of symptoms:
ammonium chloride drench, smooth muscle
relaxants, surgery.

PREVENTION OF URINARY CALCULI
 Calcium to phosphorus ratio of at least 2:1;
up to 4:1, not less than 1:1
 Roughages as a part of all small ruminant diets.
- to increase saliva production
+ alfalfa is a good source of calcium
 Adequate water intake
- clean, constant source of water
 Feed additives
Limestone is a good source of calcium
Salt to increase water intake and urine production
Ammonium chloride to acidify urine
 Castration alternatives
Production: do you really need to castrate?
Pets: later castration (by vet, under anesthesia)

WHITE MUSCLE DISEASE
WMD, stiff lamb disease, nutritional muscular hypertrophy
 Degenerative muscle disease of large animals.
 Caused by a deficiency of selenium and/or Vitamin E
 Can affect skeletal or cardiac muscles (sudden death, poor
response to Tx); can also cause symptoms of ill thrift and
reproductive losses.
 Most common in young lambs/kids: newborns and fast-
growing, kids more than lambs
 Causes
Inadequate dietary supply of selenium and/or vitamin E
Feeding of poor quality hay; lack of access to pasture
 Treatment
Supplemental selenium and/or vitamin E
 Prevention
Adequate selenium and vitamin E in diet, especially pregnant
females, as selenium crosses placenta (vitamin E does not)
Feed balanced rations, force feed minerals
Injections for at-risk animals (poor alternative to proper diet)

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
 Nutrient Requirements of Small ruminants:
Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World
Camelids, National Research Council 2007

Small Ruminant Nutrition Problems and Solutions

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