IPM

Boer goat grazing chicory,[object Object],II. Integrated parasite management (IPM),[object Object],Controlling internal parasites without or before you need to use anthelmintics: host immunity, grazing and pasture management, nutrition, management, and genetics.,[object Object]

Key points of parasite control,[object Object],The goal is not to eradicate worms, but to reduce their adverse effects in practical and economical ways.,[object Object],The interaction between parasites, the environment, animals, and management decisions is complex.,[object Object],Drug resistance is a serious challenge to effective parasite control.,[object Object]

Parasite infection in sheep and goats ,[object Object],Parasite infection is normal in sheep and goats.,[object Object],The number of worms found in individual animals varies, with essentially all animals having some worms (and coccidia).,[object Object],It is rare to find animals uninfected.,[object Object]

Parasite infection in sheep and goats,[object Object],The nematode population in a flock is over dispersed.,[object Object],A majority of the nematodes are in a minority of the animals.,[object Object],The 80-20 rule: 20 percent of the animals shed 80 percent of the worm eggs.,[object Object]

Parasite infection in sheep and goats,[object Object],The risk and severity of parasite infection varies by . . . ,[object Object],Season,[object Object],Year (weather),[object Object],Geographic location (climate),[object Object],Farm,[object Object],Production system,[object Object],Animal,[object Object]

Integrated parasite management (IPM),[object Object],Whole farm or systems approach to managing internal parasitism.,[object Object],Applying best management practices to minimize the effects of parasites and the need for deworming.,[object Object],Holistic worm management.,[object Object],There is no one way or “magical” recipe for controlling parasites.,[object Object]

Integrated parasite management,[object Object],Host immunity,[object Object],Pasture and grazing management,[object Object],Nutrition,[object Object],Management,[object Object],Genetics,[object Object],Anthelmintic treatment,[object Object]

Host immunity,[object Object],Sheep and goats have several defense mechanisms for dealing with internal parasites:,[object Object],Immune exclusion,[object Object],Self-cure,[object Object],Immunity,[object Object],Innate,[object Object],Acquired,[object Object]

IMMUNE EXCLUSION,[object Object],SELF-CURE PHENOMENON,[object Object],Ingested larvae fail to establish in heavily infected animals.,[object Object],Adult nematodes are spontaneously expelled when there is a massive larval invasion over a very short exposure period.,[object Object],Usually observed after a heavy rain. Why does it occur (?),[object Object],Increase in abomasal pH,[object Object],IgE mediated hypersensitivity,[object Object]

Immunity (2 kinds) The ability to resist a particular disease.,[object Object],St. Croix lambs,[object Object],ACQUIRED,[object Object],Immunity that is not inherited.,[object Object],Immunity that is acquired during life.,[object Object],Immunity that results from exposure to the disease.,[object Object],INNATE (inborn, natural),[object Object],Infection is limited during the initial exposure.,[object Object],Immunity that occurs naturally as part of an individual’s genetic make-up.,[object Object],Crossbred lambs,[object Object]

Immunity,[object Object],Develops with advancing age and parasite exposure.,[object Object],Not until >4 months of age, depending upon breed and nematode species.,[object Object],Preventative anthelmintic treatments interfere with the development of immunity.,[object Object],Adults are generally immune to parasites, but under stress can break down.,[object Object],Goats show the weakest degree of immunity of any livestock.,[object Object]

Periparturient egg riseRelaxation of immunity around the time of parturition,[object Object],Lasts for about 4 weeks,[object Object],May occur earlier (in pregnancy) if animals are underfed or under stress.,[object Object],Primary source of infection for new crop of lambs and kids.,[object Object],Cause (?) Hypothesis:,[object Object],Lactation after pregnancy,[object Object],Increasing prolactin levels,[object Object],Reduction in IgA antibodies associated with transfer of maternal antibodies in colostrum,[object Object]

“Spring” periparturient egg rise,[object Object],If lambing and kidding occur in the spring, it will coincide with the maturation and egg production from previously arrested worm larvae.,[object Object],Management strategies,[object Object],Deworm all females prior to parturition with an anthelmintic that is effective against hypobiotic larvae.,[object Object],Increase protein level of ration during late gestation.,[object Object],Selective deworming using FAMACHA© system and Five Point Check©.,[object Object]

Pasture and grazing managementThe “cornerstone” of effective parasite control.,[object Object],Clean or safe pastures,[object Object],Pasture rest/rotation,[object Object],Stocking rates,[object Object],Alternative forages,[object Object],Browsing,[object Object],Plant height,[object Object],Plant morphology,[object Object],Plant moisture,[object Object],Mixed species grazing,[object Object]

Clean or safe pastureA pasture that is FREE from parasites.,[object Object],Newly planted dwarf pearl millet,[object Object],A pasture that has never grazed by sheep or goats.,[object Object],A pasture that is grazed once per year by sheep and/or goats.,[object Object],A pasture that has not been grazed by sheep or goats for 6 to 12 months.,[object Object],Pasture that has been grazed by cattle or horses for past 6 to 12 months.,[object Object],Pasture in which a hay or silage crop has been removed.,[object Object],A pasture that has been renovated with tillage.,[object Object],A pasture that has been rotated with row crops.,[object Object],Burnt pasture.,[object Object],Annual pastures.,[object Object],Cleaner, safer pastures are usually a more practical option.,[object Object]

Pasture rest/rotationThe primary method for creating safer (less contaminated) pastures.,[object Object],Parasite infection is driven by stocking rates and duration of grazing periods.Overgrazing -> parasitism,[object Object],The higher the stocking rate, the more the pasture gets infected and the more likely livestock are to ingest infective worm larvae.,[object Object],The longer the grazing period, the more the pasture gets infected and the more likely livestock are to ingest infective parasite larvae.,[object Object]

Rotational grazing,[object Object],There is no “one-size fits all” pasture rotation schedule. There are many variables to manage:,[object Object],Climate,[object Object],Season,[object Object],Rainfall,[object Object],Number of paddocks,[object Object],Size of paddocks,[object Object],Number of livestock,[object Object],Susceptibility of livestock,[object Object],Forage type and quality,[object Object],Supplemental feed,[object Object],There is often a trade-off between parasite control and good pasture management.,[object Object]

General recommendations,[object Object],It takes approximately 60 days for a highly contaminated pasture to become lowly contaminated with worm larvae.,[object Object],“Take half, leave half”,[object Object],Don’t graze below 4 inches (10 cm).,[object Object]

Plant height,[object Object],It is estimated that 80 percent of infective worm larvae are found in the first 2 to 3 inches of the ground surface.,[object Object],Do not graze pastures below 4 inches.,[object Object],Overgrazing is one of the primary causes of internal parasitism in small ruminants.,[object Object]

Alternative forages,[object Object],Forages containing condensed tannins and sesquiterpene lactones.,[object Object],Sericea lespedeza,[object Object],Chicory ,[object Object],Birdsfoot trefoil,[object Object],Artemisia spp.,[object Object],Chicory,[object Object],How do they work (?) – reduce egg hatch and development of larvae.,[object Object]

Sericea lespedezaLespedezacuneata(high tannin variety),[object Object],Warm season legume that grows in acidic soils with low fertility and is tolerant of drought.,[object Object],Goats readily eat.Sheep will eat.,[object Object],For control of barber pole worm only.,[object Object],Effective when consumed as,[object Object],Fresh forage,[object Object],Loose or ground hay,[object Object],Pelleted supplement,[object Object],Images from scsrpc.org,[object Object]

Browsing,[object Object],Goats that are allowed to browse (their natural grazing behavior) have fewer parasite problems.,[object Object],Browse should be managed to provide continuous nutrition for goats.,[object Object],Sheep will also browse.,[object Object]

Plant morphology,[object Object],There are lower numbers of larvae on non-grass plants, e.g. legumes, forbs.,[object Object],Non-grass plants reduce parasite survival on pasture or reduce larval migration up plant.,[object Object],Management strategies,[object Object],Include legumes in pasture mixes (e.g. 30%).,[object Object],Plant alternative forages.,[object Object],Red clover,[object Object]

Plant moisture,[object Object],Delay grazing until after dew has lifted or the grass has dried after a rain.,[object Object],Dry conditions force the larvae to stay at the base of the plant.,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

NutritionThere is an interaction between parasites and nutrition. ,[object Object],Livestock are far more capable of coping with parasites if their nutritional needs are being met.,[object Object],Animals on low protein diets are more susceptible to infection because they produce less IgA.,[object Object]

Nutritional control of parasites,[object Object],Improved protein nutrition.,[object Object],Increased body protein reserves.,[object Object],Feed periparturient females protein at 130% of requirements.,[object Object],Provide supplemental protein to grazing livestock, especially at-risk animals and during periods of poor forage quality.,[object Object],Manage pastures so that they are grazed in a vegetative state.,[object Object]

Management options,[object Object],Sanitation,[object Object],Biosecurity,[object Object],Zero grazing,[object Object],Timing of lambing and kidding,[object Object],Weaning age,[object Object]

Sanitation,[object Object],Dry, well-bedded pens,[object Object],Clean floors and surfaces,[object Object],Feeders which prevent contamination and wastage.,[object Object],[object Object],Clean water that is free from fecal material.,[object Object],Discourage congregation on pasture.,[object Object]

BiosecurityDon’t introduce drug-resistant worms to your farm,[object Object],Quarantine new animals for 30 days,[object Object],In a pen away from rest of flock/herd.,[object Object],No fence line contact,[object Object],Deworm with anthelmintics from 2-3 drug chemistries, e.g. ,[object Object],Cydectin® + levamisole,[object Object],Valbazen® + Ivomec® + levamisole,[object Object]

Zero grazingconfinement, dry lot, feed lot, elevated floors,[object Object],Can maintain animals relatively “worm-free” under zero grazing conditions.,[object Object],Coccidiosis is still a risk.,[object Object],Primary source of infection (and re-infection) is removed: grazing.,[object Object],Pens should be kept dry.,[object Object],Feeders and waterers need to be kept clean.,[object Object],No feeding on pen floor or ground.,[object Object],Dairy goats in China,[object Object]

Season of lambing and kidding,[object Object],[object Object]

There can be other advantages to lambing and kidding at different times of the year (e.g. marketing, predator risk).,[object Object]

Genetic aspects of parasite control,[object Object],Some animals mount a significant response to internal parasite infection, while others do not.,[object Object],Some animals do not mount a noticeable response to internal parasite infection, but they suffer no obvious loss of production.,[object Object],There is significant within and between breed variation in parasite resistance and resilience.,[object Object]

Two genetic traits ,[object Object],RESISTANCE,[object Object],Ability to prevent infection from establishing.,[object Object],Quantified by fecal egg counts.,[object Object],Moderately heritable,[object Object],h2 ranges from 0.22 to 0.63,[object Object],Avg. h2 is 0.25,[object Object],RESILIENCE (tolerance),[object Object],Ability to limit damage caused by parasites,[object Object],Quantified by clinical signs: packed cell volume (barber pole worm), dag scores, etc.,[object Object],Less heritable than resistance, ~ 0.1,[object Object]

Resistance and resilienceBoth traits are equally important!,[object Object],There is a cost to parasite resistance as resources are directed away from production traits.,[object Object],Resilient animals may still carry significant parasite loads and be a source of contamination to the pasture and other animals.,[object Object],Correlation between two traits,[object Object],No correlation between worm resistance and resilience in New Zealand studies.,[object Object],Positive correlation between two traits in Australian work.,[object Object],Low (positive) or no correlation in Western Maryland Pasture-Based Meat Goat Performance Test.,[object Object]

(More) resistant breeds,[object Object],SHEEP,[object Object],GOATS,[object Object],Hair sheep of Caribbean or North African heritage,[object Object],[object Object]

KatahdinGulf Coast Native,[object Object],Kiko,[object Object],Spanish,[object Object],Myotonic,[object Object],Naturally-selected resistant breeds of sheep and goats have developedresistance over a much longer term(decades and perhaps centuries) than short-term (few years)genetically-selected resistant lines within breed. ,[object Object],St. Croix sheep,[object Object]

Breeding for worm resistanceWithin breed selection,[object Object],RESISTANCE,[object Object],RESILIENCE,[object Object],Cull animals with high fecal egg counts.,[object Object],Don’t select replacements with high fecal egg counts.,[object Object],Don’t use rams or bucks with high egg fecal counts.,[object Object],Include fecal egg counts in a selection index.,[object Object],Select animals based on a minimum standard for parasite resistance.,[object Object],Use EPD’s to select for parasite resistance.,[object Object],Use gene markers to select for parasite resistance.,[object Object],Cull animals that require frequent deworming.,[object Object],Don’t select replacements that require frequent deworming.,[object Object],Don’t use a ram or buck that requires frequent deworming.,[object Object],Make sure you are comparing animals in the same contemporary group (i.e. similar breed, age, and management).,[object Object]

IPM

IPM

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