"A History of the English Language" by Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable. Prof. Huda Alhadlaq's slides converted to a PDF file.

1. History
of
the
English
Language
The
Importance
of
the
Language:
It
is
the
means
by
which
man
communicates
his
thoughts
and
feeling
to
the
others
.
It
is
the
tool
with
which
he
conducts
his
business
or
manage
the
government
affairs.
It
is
the
vehicle
by
which
science
and
literature
are
transmitted
from
generation
to
another.
It
is
assumed
that
every
educated
person
knows
something
about
the
structure
of
his
language
,its
position
in
the
world
and
its
relation
to
the
other
languages
,the
source
of
its
vocabulary
and
the
prominent
political
,social
and
cultural
influences
which
have
affected
the
language
.
2.
Influences
at
Work
on
Language:
English
today
reflects
centuries
of
development
.It
has
been
mainly
affected
by
the
social
and
political
events.
Some
of
such
events
are:
•The
Christianizing
of
Britain
in
597
which
caused
the
contact
between
the
two
civilization
Latin
and
Britain
and
consequently
resulted
in
the
increase
of
the
English
vocabulary.
•Other
events
are
the
Scandinavian
invasion,
the
Norman
,the
hundred
years
war
,
the
expansion
of
the
British
empire
and
other
factors
.
In
short
,the
English
language
results
in
its
entire
development
from
the
political
,social
and
cultural
history
of
the
English
people.
Growth
and
Decay:
Do
languages
change?
English
as
well
as
other
languages
are
subject
to
growth
and
decay
.
When
a
language
ceases
to
change
,we
call
it
a
dead
language
.(
Latin
2000
years)
.
The
change
in
the
language
that
could
be
observed
is
mainly
in
the
vocabulary
.
Old
word
die
out
,new
words
are
added
and
existing
words
change
their
meanings.
What
causes
the
introduction
of
new
words
into
the
language
?
To
meet
the
new
conditions
of
life
e.g.
for
the
change
in
meaning
Shakespeare's
nice
=
foolish
Change
in
pronunciation
OE
stan=
stone
cu=cow
The
changes
are
controlled
by
‘
sound
low’
Changes
in
the
grammatical
forms
(could
be
a
result
of
the
gradual
phonetic
modification)
It
coul
be
the
result
of
unconditioned
analogy(e.g.)
knowed*
This
process
may
affect
the
sound
and
meaning
as
well.
The
Importance
of
a
Language:
Is
the
relation
between
the
language
and
the
people’s
who
speak
it
very
strong?
A
language
lives
only
if
there
are
people
who
speak
it.
Do
you
think
that
learning
about
the
historical
background
of
the
language
is
limited
to
English
students?
All
educated
people
.
Why
is
the
English
language
important
?
A
language
is
important
if
the
people
who
speak
it
are
important
politically,
economically
and
culturally.
Give
examples
of
important
languages
(
English
,
French
and
German)
some
languages
are
important
due
to
the
cultural
value
of
ethnic
group.
classical
Greek,for
instance
is
important
for
it
represents
a
great
civilization.
Importance
of
English:
It
is
spoken
by
great
number
of
people,
approximately
500
million
2012
late
statistics
.
Is
it
the
largest
language
in
the
world
?
India
300
million
china
880
million
.
The
importance
is
not
limited
to
numbers
of
speakers
.It
depends
on
the
importance
of
the
people
who
speak
it
.
The
political
role
of
its
nation
and
their
influence
in
the
international
commerce
,
their
role
in
art
and
literature
,
in
science
,
invention.
In
short,
it
depends
on
their
contribution
to
the
progress
of
the
world.
It
is
important
as
a
“
lingua
franca
“
=
common
means
of
communication
among
people
of
diverse
tongues.
The
Future
of
English:
Growth
of
population:
Most
native
speakers
of
English
live
in
the
developed
countries
which
constitutes
smaller
proportion
of
the
world’s
population
.However
,
English
is
widely
used
as
a
second
language
throughout
the
world.
In
India
which
is
one
of
the
1

2. developing
countries
English
is
one
of
the
official
languages.(
Philippins
and
Nigeria)
In
some
countries
English
is
a
neutral
language
among
various
languages.
Available
textbooks
in
English
grant
it
supremacy
over
the
other
vernaculars
.
Will
English
become
a
world
language?
Positive
consequences:
1. Travel
communication
2.
business
conduction
3.
observation
and
spread
of
science
and
knowledge.
4.
world
peace
More
scientific
research
is
probably
published
in
English
than
any
other
language.
Moreover
the
preminence
of
English
in
commercial
use
is
obvious
.
The
revolution
in
communication
helped
the
spread
of
English.
Could
the
world
enforce
an
international
language?
It
is
the
effect
of
economic
and
cultural
forces.
which
may
determine
such
a
language
.Since
world
war
II
English
was
the
official
language
of
one
fourth
of
the
population
of
the
world
.
Even
after
the
independent
of
the
British
colonies
English
continued
to
be
used
alongside
the
vernaculars
either
as
the
primary
language
or
a
necessary
second
in
school,
court
and
business.
Assets
and
Liabilities:
There
are
some
features
of
great
advantage
in
facilitating
the
acquisition
of
English
by
foreigners
.
The
ability
to
express
the
multiplicity
of
ideas
and
refinements
of
thoughts
.
Is
it
easy
to
learn
English?
1.Cosmopolitan
vocabulary
:
One
of
the
assets
of
English
is
its
vocabulary.
*
It
is
classified
as
Germanic
language
(same
group
to
which
belong
German
,Dutch
,Flemish
…
*
More
than
half
of
its
vocabulary
is
derived
directly
or
indirectly
from
Latin
,French
and
other
Romance
languages
.Thus
it
shares
a
lot
of
the
vocabulary
with
such
European
languages
which
are
derived
from
Latin
,French
,
Italian…
*It
has
the
capacity
of
assimilating
word
from
other
languages
e.g
Italy
balcony
,piano
,Spanish
alligator,
mosquito
.
"
2.Inflectional
Simplicity:
It
is
an
inflected
language
however
inflection
in
the
noun
as
spoken
have
been
reduced
to
a
sign
of
the
plural
and
a
form
for
the
possessive.
The
Germanic
inflection
of
the
adjective
has
been
reduced
to
the
indication
of
the
comparative
degree.
The
verb
has
been
simplified
by
the
loss
of
personal
endings
singular
and
plural.
3.Natural
Gender
:
Unlike
other
European
languages
English
has
adopted
natural
gender
in
place
of
grammatical
gender
.
Gender
in
English
is
determined
by
meaning
.
All
nouns
naming
living
creatures
are
masculine
or
feminine
.
According
to
the
sex
of
the
individual
,
and
all
other
nouns
are
neuter
.
Liabilities:
There
are
some
difficulties
in
learning
English
.
Idioms
are
forms
of
expression
peculiar
to
one
language
.
All
languages
have
their
own
way
of
saying
things
.
Another
difficulty
for
foreigners
is
spelling
and
the
frequent
lack
of
correlation
between
spelling
and
pronunciation
.e.g.
the
vowel
sound
in
believe,
receive,leave,see,be
is
in
each
case
represented
by
a
different
spelling
.In
the
case
of
consonants
for
example
we
have
fourteen
spellings
for
the
sound
of
sh
shoe,
sugar,
issue,
manssion
,mission,
nation,
suspicious,
ocean,
nauseous,
conscious,chaperon
,schist,fuchsia,
pshaw.
The
causes
of
such
diversity:
One
cannot
tell
how
to
spell
an
English
word
by
its
pronunciation
or
how
to
pronounce
it
by
its
spelling.
"
"
2

3. Chapter
2
The
Indo-­‐European
Family
of
Languages
A
Language
is
constantly
changing
.Usually
people
associate
language
with
writing
although
writing
is
only
a
conventional
device
for
recording
sounds
and
it
is
primarily
speech
.
As
long
as
the
language
lives
and
in
actual
use
it
is
in
constant
change
.
The
language
of
any
district
or
country
is
merely
the
sum
total
of
the
individual
speech
habits
.
Dialect
Differences:
How?
Separating
one
community
from
another
for
a
considerable
time
may
cause
differences
between
them.
The
differences
may
be
slight
if
the
separation
is
slight
.
The
result
would
be
merely
local
dialects.
However
,
the
differences
may
become
considerable
as
to
render
the
language
of
one
district
unintelligible
to
the
speakers
of
another.
In
spite
of
the
differences
,languages
preserve
some
common
features
that
indicate
their
mutual
origin.
Since
English
is
a
Germanic
language
notice
a
close
relationship
e.g.
milch
and
milk
brot
and
bread
,wass
and
water
…..There
are
some
common
words
among
different
languages
.Although
sometimes
the
differences
in
the
initial
consonants
may
obsecure
the
relationship
.
Thus
the
languages
of
a
large
part
of
Europe
and
part
of
Asia
were
at
one
time
identical.
The
Discovery
of
Sanskrit:
What?
Sanskrit
is
the
language
of
ancient
India.
In
addition
to
the
vocabulary
sanskrit
preserved
an
unusually
full
system
of
declensions
and
conjunctions
by
which
it
became
clear
that
the
inflections
of
these
languages
could
be
traced
to
a
common
origin
.
(table
p.18)
In
fact
the
hindu
grammarian
traced
the
roots
and
classified
the
formative
elements
,and
worked
out
the
rules
according
to
which
certain
sound
changes
occurred.
"
Grimm’s
Law:
Who?
German
philologist
called
Jacob
Grimm.
He
formulated
an
explanation
which
systematically
accounted
for
the
correspondences
between
certain
consonants
in
the
Germanic
languages
and
those
found
for
example
in
sanskrit
,
Greek,
and
Latin
e.g.
according
to
Grimm
a
/
p/
in
Indo
–European
,preserved
as
such
in
Latin
and
Greek
was
changed
to
an
/f/
in
Germanic
languages
.
Latin
piscis
pes
English
fish
foot
"
"
The
original
voicless
stops
/
p,t,k/
were
changed
to
spirants/f,p,h/
The
cause
of
such
change
is
not
known
.It
must
have
taken
place
sometimes
after
the
segregation
of
the
Germanic
from
nighbuoring
dialects
of
the
parent
language
.The
formulation
of
these
correspondences
of
sounds
among
languages
is
known
as
Grimm’s
Law.
It
could
have
resulted
from
a
contact
between
Germanic
and
non
Germanic
population
.
The
shifting
was
still
occurring
as
late
as
about
the
fifteenth
century
.
The
Germanic
sound-­‐shift
is
the
most
distinctive
feature
marking
of
the
Germanic
languages
from
the
languages
to
which
the
y
are
related.
The
Indo
European
Family:
The
languages
brought
into
relationship
by
descent
or
progressive
differentiation
from
a
parent
speech
are
conveniently
called
a
family
of
languages.
Philologist
named
this
family
different
names
(
Indo-­‐Germanic,
Indo-­‐Teutonic..)
but
a
most
widely
term
used
is
the
Indo
–European
family
which
indicates
the
geographical
extent
of
the
family.
The
parent
tongue
from
which
the
Indo
–European
languages
have
sprung
have
already
become
divided
and
scattered
long
time
ago.
The
surviving
languages
show
various
degrees
of
similarity
to
one
another
which
indicates
more
or
less
direct
relationship
to
their
geographical
distribution.
They
are
mainly
divided
into
eleven
groups
:Indian
,
Iranian
,
Armenian
,
Hellenic
,
Albanian
,Italic
,
Balto-­‐slavic,Germanic
,Celtic
,
Hittite
and
Tocharian.
1.Indian:
The
old
literary
texts
preserved
in
any
Indo-­‐European
language
are
the
old
books
of
Indian
.
The
language
in
which
they
were
written
is
called
Sanskrit.
It
was
first
restricted
to
religious
writings
and
later
it
was
extended
to
other
types
of
writings.
Sanskrit
was
given
a
fixed
,literary
form
.
In
this
form
it
is
known
as
classical
Sanskrit
which
is
the
medium
of
an
extensive
indian
literature.
For
a
certain
period
of
time
it
was
looked
upon
as
a
learned
language
and
held
a
place
in
India
similar
to
that
occupied
by
Latin
in
medieval
Europe
.
Later
it
ceased
to
be
a
spoken
language
.
Alongside
Sanskrit
there
existed
a
large
number
of
local
dialects.
From
these
dialects
descended
the
present
languages
of
India
,Pakistan
and
Bangladesh.
3

4. (Hindi,
Urdu,
Bengali)
.Thus
urdu
is
by
origin
and
present
structure
is
closely
related
to
Hindi.
However.It
differs
mainly
in
its
considerable
mixture
of
Persian
and
Arabic
and
in
its
perso-­‐Arabic
script
instead
of
sanskrit
characters.
2.Iranian:
The
Indo-­‐European
population
which
settled
this
region
had
lived
and
probably
traveled
for
a
considerable
time
in
company
with
the
members
of
the
Indian
branch
.Thus
there
are
a
number
of
linguistic
features
which
the
two
groups
have
in
common.
The
region
where
those
people
settled
has
been
subjected
to
semitic
influence
and
many
of
the
early
texts
are
preserved
in
semitic
scripts.
In
this
region,
since
the
9th
century
,persian
has
been
the
language
of
an
important
culture
and
an
extensive
literature
.Persian
contains
a
large
Arabic
admixture
so
that
today
its
vocabulary
seems
almost
as
much
as
Arabic
as
Iranian.
Other
related
languages
in
the
near
territory
are
Afghan
or
Pushtu
and
Beluchi
Kurdish
in
kurdistan
3.
Armanian:
Armanian
is
found
in
a
small
area
south
of
the
caucasus
Mountains.
It
lacks
the
grammatical
gender
and
it
shows
a
shifting
of
certain
consonants
(Grimm’s
Law).
It
is
known
from
the
fifth
century
since
the
Armanian
were
under
persian
domination
for
several
centuries
,the
vocabulary
shows
such
strong
Iranian
influence
to
the
extent
that
it
was
classified
as
an
Iranian
language
.
4.
Hellenic:
Represented
in
Greek
and
other
dialects
.
The
conquest
of
Alexander
established
the
language
in
as
in
Syria
and
as
well
as
Egypt
and
other
coutries
5.Albanian:
In
the
northwest
of
Greece.
It
is
probably
the
descendant
of
Illyrian.
A
language
spoken
in
the
Northwestern
Balkans.
The
vocabulary
of
the
Albanian
is
mixed
with
Latin
,Greek,Turkish..
As
a
consequent
of
the
constant
conquests.
It
was
first
classed
with
the
Hellenic
group
but
since
the
beginning
of
the
20th
century
it
was
recognized
as
an
independent
member
of
the
family.
6.
Italic
:
It
has
its
center
in
Italy.
Italy
in
ancient
times
suggest
Rome
and
the
language
of
Rome
,Latin.
However
Latin
was
only
one
of
a
number
of
languages
found
in
that
area.
In
fact
,
the
various
languages
that
represent
the
survival
of
Latin
in
the
different
parts
of
the
Roman
Empire
are
known
as
the
Romance
or
Romanic
languages.
Examples
of
such
languages
are
French,
Spanish,
Portuguese
and
Italian.
These
languages
did
not
descend
from
classical
Latin
which
was
a
literary
language
with
elaborate
and
artificial
grammar
.
They
descended
from
vulgar
Latin
of
the
common
people
which
is
simpler
in
inflection
and
syntax.
7.Balto-­‐Slavic:
It
covers
a
vast
area
in
the
eastern
part
of
Europe
and
it
is
divided
in
groups
,
the
Baltic
and
the
Slavic.
The
Baltic
languages
are
three
in
number
:Prussian
,
Lettish
and
Lithuanian.
The
latter
is
spoken
by
3million
people
in
the
Baltic
state
of
lithuania
.
It
is
important
among
the
Indo-­‐European
languages
because
of
its
conservatism.(a
lithuanian
fesant
can
understand
simple
phrases
in
Sanskrit
)
.
Lithuanian
preserves
some
very
old
features
which
have
disappeared
from
practically
all
the
other
languages
of
the
family
.
Slavic
languages
cover
Russia
,Poland
,Czechoslo
vakia
,Bulgaria
,Serbo-­‐croatian.
8.Germanic:
The
language
descending
from
Germanic
fall
into
three
groups
East
Germanic
,
North
Germanic
and
west
Germanic
the
principal
language
of
East
Germanic
is
gothic.
North
Germanic
is
found
in
Scandinavia
and
Denmark.
West
Germanic
is
of
interest
to
us
as
the
group
to
which
English
belong
particularly
to
the
low
Germanic
branch.
9.
Celtic:
The
celtic
languages
are
consider
the
most
extensive
groups
in
the
Indo-­‐European
.
Beside
these
languages
there
are
two
:Hittite
and
Tocharian.
The
Home
of
the
Indo-­‐Europian
Family:
"
The
indo-­‐European
languages
are
spoken
today
in
many
cultures
which
until
recently
have
had
completely
unrelated
heritages.
Considering
the
language
variety
of
people
who
have
spoken
these
languages
from
early
times,
it
is
quite
possible
that
the
people
of
the
original
Indo-­‐European
community
already
represented
a
wide
ethnic
diversity.
It
is
assumed
that
the
original
home
of
this
family
was
in
that
part
of
the
world
in
which
the
language
of
the
family
are
chiefly
to
be
found
today.
Thus
we
may
exclude
Africa
,Australia
and
the
American
continents
since
we
know
that
the
extension
of
Indo-­‐
European
languages
in
these
areas
has
occurred
in
historical
times.
In
general
we
could
say
that
the
only
regions
in
which
it
is
reasonable
to
seek
the
original
home
of
the
Indo-­‐European
family
are
the
mainland
of
Europe
and
western
part
of
Asia.
Observation
about
the
Indo-­‐European
language,
show
that
they
have
a
common
word
for
‘winter’
and
for
‘snow’
which
indicate
that
the
original
home
of
the
family
was
in
a
climate
which
at
certain
seasons
at
least
was
fairly
cold.
On
the
other
hand
it
is
not
certain
that
there
was
a
common
word
for
the
sea.
The
original
community
was
apparently
an
inland
one,
but
not
necessarily
situated
at
a
great
distance
from
the
coast.
4

5. Chapter
3
Old
English
1.The
Languages
in
England
before
English:
English
is
always
associated
with
people
,
however
English
was
introduced
to
England
about
the
middle
of
the
fifth
century
.
Since
that
time
a
number
of
races
inhabited
the
island
(England).
The
first
people
in
England
about
whose
language
recognized
are
the
Celts
(the
last
group
of
the
immegrants
to
settle
in
Britain
before
the
arrival
of
the
Anglo-­‐Saxons
).
Celtic
was
the
first
Indo-­‐European
tongue
spoken
in
Englang
and
it
is
still
spoken
by
a
considerable
number
of
people
.
Another
language
was
Latin
which
was
introduced
when
Britain
became
a
province
of
the
Roman
Empire
and
it
was
used
for
about
four
centuries.
2.The
Romans
in
Britain
and
the
Roman
Conquest
The
Roman
attempts
to
conquer
Britain
were
at
the
reign
of
Ceaser
55BC.
Then
it
was
promoted
at
the
reign
of
Claudius
43AD.
"
3.
Romanization
of
the
Island
The
conquest
of
England
under
the
Roman
Empire
resulted
in
the
adoption
of
various
Roman
habits
and
life
style.
The
Roman
conquest
in
fact
developed
England.
By
the
third
century
christianity
had
made
some
progress
in
the
Island.
4.The
Latin
language
Among
the
evidences
of
Romanization
of
England
is
the
use
of
Latin
.
It
didn’t
replace
Celtic
.
It
was
confined
upon
occasions
to
the
upper
class
and
inhabitants
of
the
cities
and
towns
.
Thus
its
use
wasn’t
widespread
to
the
extent
that
cause
it
to
survive.
5.
The
Germanic
Conquest
About
the
year
449
began
the
invasion
of
certain
Germanic
tribes
to
Britain
.
These
tribes
for
more
than
a
hundred
years
migrated
from
Denmark
and
settled
in
Britain
specially
in
the
south
and
the
east.
The
Germanic
tribes
are
called
Juts
,Saxons,
Angles
and
Frisians.
6.Anglo-­‐Saxon
Civilization:
In
some
districts
the
Anglo
–Saxons
probably
settled
down
beside
the
Celts
in
more
or
less
peaceful
contact.
In
others
however
they
met
resistance
(the
impact
on
the
language)
7.
The
Names
‘English’
and
‘England:
The
Celts
called
their
Germanic
Conqueror
‘Saxons’
probably
because
had
their
first
contact
with
through
the
Saxons
.Soon
the
name’
Anglia
‘
occurred
beside
‘Saxons’.
From
the
beginning
writers
called
their
language
Englisc
(English
)
which
is
derived
from
Angles
and
it
was
used
to
describe
the
language
of
all
the
invading
tribes
.
From
about
the
year
1000
‘England’
(land
of
the
Angles)
began
to
take
its
place.
The
name
English
is
thus
older
than
the
name
‘England’
.English
belongs
to
the
low
west
Germanic
branch
of
the
Indo-­‐European
family
which
means
that
it
shares
certain
characteristics
common
to
all
Germanic
languages
e.g
shifting
consonants
“Grimms
Law”.
Although
English
belongs
to
the
Germanic
languages
,it
was
affected
by
other
languages
for
it
has
some
features
in
common
with
them
which
enable
us
to
distinguish
a
west
Germanic
group
as
contrasted
with
Scandinavian
languages
(North
Germanic)
and
Gothic
(East
Germanic).
8.
The
Periods
in
the
History
of
English:
The
fifteen
hundred
years
of
the
existence
of
English
in
England
could
be
divided
into
three
main
periods.
The
dividing
lines
between
them
purely
arbitrary.
The
period
from
450
to
1150
is
known
as
Old
English
.
It
is
described
as
the
period
of
full
inflections.
From
1150
to
1500
the
language
is
known
as
Middle
English.
During
this
period
the
inflections,
which
had
begun
to
break
down
towards
the
end
of
old
English
period,
became
greatly
reduced
.It
was
known
as
the
period
of
leveled
inflections.
The
language
since
1500
is
called
Modern
English.
Since
then
a
large
part
of
the
original
inflectional
system
has
disappeared
and
therefore
it
is
called
the
period
of
lost
inflection.
9.
THE
Dialects
of
English:
Old
English
has
four
distinctive
dialects
.Northumbrian
,
Mercian
,West
Saxon
,
and
Kentish
10.
Some
Characteristics
of
Old
English:
The
differences
between
OE
and
Modern
English
concern
spelling
and
pronunciation
,
vocabulary
and
grammar.Examples
of
such
differences
in
pronunciation
are
the
long
vowels
in
particular
have
undergone
considerable
modification.
/stan/=/stone/
,/rap
/=
/rope/,
/bat/=
/boat/
Some
of
the
first
look
of
strangeness
which
old
English
has
to
the
modern
reader
is
the
differences
of
spelling
e.g.
Old
English
made
use
of
two
characteristics
to
represent
the
sound
of
/th/
:/p/
and
/ð/
as
in
the
word
/wip/=with
or
/ða/
=then,
5

6. /
sh
/
represented
by
/sc/
sceap=
sheep
,
scip=ship
A
second
feature
of
Old
English
would
distinguish
it
from
modern
English
is
the
absence
of
words
derived
from
Latin
and
French
which
form
so
large
a
part
of
our
present
vocabulary
.
The
vocabulary
of
old
English
is
almost
purely
Germanic.
Studies
show
that
about
85%
of
old
English
vocabulary
no
longer
in
use.
The
old
English
vocabulary
which
survived
are
basic
elements
of
the
language
such
as
pronouns
,prepositions,
conjunctions
,auxiliary
verbs
and
words
that
express
fundamental
concepts
e.g.
man
,
wife,
child,
house,
leaf,
bird..
Another
feature
that
distinguish
Old
English
from
the
English
today
is
grammar
.
Inflectional
languages
fall
into
two
classes
:
synthetic
and
analytic
.
A
synthetic
language
:is
one
which
indicates
the
relation
of
words
in
a
sentence
largely
by
means
of
inflections
(OE)
An
analytic
language:
is
one
which
make
extensive
use
of
prepositions
and
auxiliary
verbs
and
depend
s
upon
word
order
to
show
other
relationships
and
modern
English
is
an
analytic
one.
11.
The
Resourcefulness
of
the
Old
English
Vocabulary:
It
might
seem
that
Old
English
a
language
which
lacked
the
large
number
of
words
borrowed
from
Latin
and
French
would
be
limited
in
resources.
However
,
Old
English
had
its
own
way
to
enrich
its
vocabulary
through
affixes
and
self
–explaining
compounds.
Old
English
had
great
flexibility,
a
capacity
for
bending
old
words
to
new
uses
by
means
of
prefixes
and
suffixes
a
single
root
is
made
to
yield
a
variety
of
derivatives
.
In
fact
Old
English
showed
remarkable
capacity
for
derivation
and
word
formation
.
It
was
more
resourceful
in
utilizing
its
native
material
than
modern
English
.
Part
of
the
flexibility
of
the
vocabulary
of
Old
English
is
that
it
comes
from
the
generous
use
of
prefixes
and
suffixes
to
form
new
words
from
old
words
e.g.
suffixes
:full
,
ness
,
dom
etc….and
e.g.
prefixes
:fore,
mis
,
un
,under
Compounds
consist
of
two
or
more
native
words
whose
meaning
is
combination
is
either
self-­‐evident
or
has
been
rendered
clear
by
association
and
usage
:
steamboat
,railroad
,sewing
machine
,
one
–way
street.
12.
Old
English
Literature:
The
language
of
the
past
time
is
known
by
the
quality
of
its
literature.
It
is
in
literature
that
a
language
displays
its
full
power
,its
ability
to
convey
in
vivid
and
memorable
form
the
thoughts
and
emotions
of
people.
The
literature
of
the
Anglo
Saxons
is
one
of
the
richest
and
most
significant
of
any
preserved
among
the
early
Germanic
people
.
Old
English
literature
is
of
two
sorts
.One
is
that
which
was
brought
to
England
by
the
Germanic
conquerors
and
represent
the
pagan
stream
whereas
the
other
stream
is
the
christian
which
was
evolved
by
the
introduction
of
christianity
into
the
island
at
the
end
of
the
6th
century.
The
greatest
work
of
Old
English
literature
is
the
Bewolf
a
poem
of
some
3000
lines
known
as
the
folk
epic.
In
the
development
of
literature
,prose
comes
late
and
vers
is
more
effective
for
oral
delivery
and
more
easily
retained
in
the
memory.
"
"
6

7. Chapter.
4
1.Foreign
Influences
on
Old
English
The
basis
of
Old
English
goes
back
to
the
Germanic
tribes.
However,
it
was
brought
into
contact
with
three
other
languages
.
At
early
times
when
it
was
introduced
into
the
island
(during
the
first
seven
hundred
years
of
its
existence
in
England
).
The
language
of
the
Celts
,the
Romans
,and
the
Scandinavian
.
The
apparent
influence
was
the
addition
to
its
vocabulary
.
A. The
Celtic
Influence
:
The
conquest
of
the
Celts
by
the
Anglo-­‐Saxsons
resulted
in
mixture
of
their
languages
which
is
natural
consequences.
The
adoption
of
the
native
language
was
not
equal
in
all
regions
.
A1.
Celtic
place
names
:
The
language
showed
evidence
of
Celtic
place-­‐names
e.g
the
kingdom
of
Kent
owes
its
name
to
the
Celtic
word
(canti)
.
Many
districts
today
specially
in
the
west
and
southwest
preserve
their
original
Celts
names.
The
name
London
although
the
origin
of
the
word
is
somewhat
uncertain
most
likely
goes
back
to
Celtic
.
The
Thames
is
a
Celtic
river
name.
A2
.
Other
Celtic
Loan
Words
:
Other
than
place
names
Celtic
words
in
English
were
of
two
groups
1.
Those
which
the
Anglo-­‐Saxson
learned
through
everyday
contact
with
the
natives
(orally
trnasmitted
and
of
popular
character)
2.
Those
which
were
introduced
by
the
Irish
missionaries
in
the
north.
(connected
with
religious
activities
and
were
more
or
less
learned
.
Generally
speaking
the
influence
of
the
Celts
upon
the
Anglo-­‐Saxons
was
slight
because
the
relation
of
the
Celts
to
the
Anglo-­‐Saxsons
was
that
of
a
submerged
race
and
they
were
not
in
a
position
to
make
any
contribution
to
Anglo-­‐
Saxson’s
civilization.
B.
Three
Latin
Influence
s
on
Old
English:
The
second
great
influence
upon
English
was
Latin
.
Latin
had
great
influence
on
OE
because
It
was
the
language
of
a
higher
Civlization
.
The
Germanic
tribes
who
became
the
English
,had
various
relations
later
with
the
Romans
through
which
they
acquired
a
considerable
number
of
Latin
words.
When
they
came
to
England
,they
saw
the
evidence
of
the
long
Roman
rule
in
the
Island
and
learned
from
the
Celts
a
few
additional
Latin
words.
Generally
speaking
the
character
of
the
words
sometimes
give
some
clue
to
its
date.
Common
words
among
English
and
other
Germanic
languages
indicate
that
these
words
were
not
borrowed
after
the
settlement
in
the
Island(e.g.
copper)
B1.
Contenental
Borrowing
(Latin
influence
of
the
zero
period:
The
first
Latin
words
to
find
their
way
into
the
English
language
owe
their
adoption
to
the
early
contact
between
the
Romans
and
the
Germanic
tribes
in
the
continent
e.g.
of
the
borrowed
Latin
words
:kitchen,
cup
,cheese
,wheat
pepper
,butter
etc….
The
Romans
contributions
to
the
building
arts
are
evident:
tile,
chalk…
The
great
number
of
Latin
words
adopted
by
the
Germanic
language
indicated
the
relationship
between
the
two
people.
B2.
Latin
through
Celtic
transmission
(Latin
influence
of
the
first
period)
The
use
of
Latin
as
a
spoken
language
didn’t
long
survive
the
end
of
Roman
rule
in
the
island
and
even
the
minimum
portion
of
the
language
which
survived
was
lost
in
the
disorders
that
accompanied
the
Germanic
invasions.
There
was
no
opportunity
for
direct
contact
between
Latin
and
Old
English
in
England
.
Such
Latin
words
in
English
would
have
come
through
Celtic
transmission.
B3.
Latin
influence
of
the
second
period
(the
chrisianizing
of
Britain)
The
greatest
influence
of
Latin
upon
OE
was
occasioned
by
introduction
of
Christianity
into
Britain
in
597
.
B4.
Effect
of
Christianity
on
English
civilization
:
Schools
were
established
.
Were
they
taught
different
fields
of
knowledge
(poetry,
astronomy
,
etc….
B5.The
Earlier
Influence
of
Christianity
on
the
Vocabulary
During
the
five
hundred
year
since
the
introduction
of
Christianity
to
the
close
of
old
English
,Latin
words
must
have
been
making
their
way
gradually
into
English
Language.
Vocabulary
of
this
period
were
those
related
to
religion
and
its
organization
.
B6.
Bendictine
Reforms
Influence
on
English
:
The
influence
of
Latin
upon
the
English
language
rose
and
fell
with
the
state
of
the
church
and
learning
at
this
period
started
to
borrow
and
describe
less
popular
words
expressing
ideas
of
a
scientific
and
learned
character.
B7.
The
Application
of
Native
Words
to
New
Concepts:
English
didn’t
always
adopt
a
foreign
word
to
express
a
new
concept
.Often
an
old
word
was
applied
to
anew
thing
and
by
a
slight
adoption
made
to
express
a
new
meaning
.
Anglo-­‐Saxon
God
instead
of
Latin
Deus.
7

8. B
8.
The
Extent
of
the
Influence:
The
influence
on
the
language
is
seen
in
the
number
of
words
borrowed
as
a
result
of
Christianizing
of
Britain
about
450
Latin
words
appear
in
English
writings
without
the
derivatives
and
the
proper
names
.The
Latin
influence
of
the
second
period
was
thorough
and
makes
the
beginning
of
the
English
habit
of
incorporating
foreign
elements
into
its
vocabulary.
C.The
Scandinavian
Influence
–The
Viking
Age:
Near
the
end
of
the
Old
English
,English
underwent
a
third
foreign
influence
as
a
result
of
the
contact
with
another
important
language
,the
Scandinavian.
Scandinavian
peninsula
and
Denmark
were
one
time
neighbours
of
the
Anglo-­‐
Saxsons
and
closely
related
in
blood
and
language
.
In
the
eighth
century
they
began
to
attack
the
island
.
In
fact
from
the
middle
of
the
eighth
century
to
the
beginning
of
the
eleventh
century
it
was
known
as
the
Viking
Age.
C
1.The
Scandinavian
Invasion
of
England:
The
Scandinavian
attacks
upon
England
have
three
well
recognized
stages.
The
first
is
the
period
of
early
raids
in
787
.
The
second
stage
which
is
marked
by
the
extensive
settlement
in
850.The
third
stage
cover
the
period
of
political
adjustment
and
assimilation
from
878
to
1042.
C
2.
The
Settlement
of
the
Dans
in
England
:
The
Scandinavian
settlement
in
the
island
was
evident
from
the
1,400
Places
in
England
bear
Scaninavian
names
specially
in
the
north
and
east.
"
C
3.The
Amalgamation
of
the
Two
People
:
There
was
a
close
kinship
between
the
Anglo-­‐Saxon
and
the
Scandinavians
.
Those
groups
who
settled
peacefully
in
Britain
.
"
C
4
.The
Relation
of
the
Two
languages
:
There
was
an
extensive
interaction
of
the
two
languages
upon
each
other.
This
interaction
is
evident
in
the
number
of
Scandinavian
elements
found
in
English
.
C
5.
The
Test
of
Borowed
Words:
The
similarity
between
Old
English
and
the
Scandinavian
language
makes
it
at
times
very
difficult
to
decide
whether
a
given
word
in
modern
English
is
a
native
or
a
borrowed
one.
e.g
the
development
of
the
sound
/
sk
/
in
old
English
was
early
palatalized
to
/
sh
/written
sc
.
Whereas
in
the
Scandinavian
countries
it
retained
its
hard
/
sk
/
sound
.
Consequently
,
while
native
word
like
ship
,shall,
fish
have
/sh/
sound
in
modern
English
words
borrowed
from
the
Scandinavian
are
still
pronounced
with
/sk/:
sky,
skill,
scrub
,bask.
C
6
.
Scandinavian
Place
Names:
Among
the
most
notable
evidences
of
the
extensive
Scandinavian
Settlement
in
England
is
the
large
number
of
places
that
bear
Scandinavian
names
(more
than
600
places
e.g
Derby,
Rugby
etc..)
C
7.The
Earlier
Borrowing:
At
the
early
stage
of
Scandinavian
invasion
words
borrowed
were
limited
to
those
associated
with
sea-­‐roving
and
predatory
people
e.g:
cnearr(
small
warship)
lip
(fleat)
dreng
(worrior)
"
C
8.
Scandinavian
loan
–Words
and
Their
Character:
It
was
after
the
Danes
had
begun
to
settle
in
the
Island
and
enter
into
the
ordinary
relations
of
life
with
the
English
that
Scandinavian
words
commenced
to
enter
in
numbers
into
the
language
.
Their
settlement
brought
the
English
in
contact
with
a
civilization
very
much
like
the
English
.
The
words
borrowed
have
the
character
of
everyday
use.
e.g:
die
,egg
,dirt
,
leg
,kid
,loan
,race
,
root..
C
9.The
Relation
of
Borrowed
and
Native
Words:
The
borrowed
Scandinavian
words
may
not
supply
real
need
in
English
vocabulary.
It
resulted
as
a
consequent
of
the
mixture
of
the
people
.
The
Scandinavian
and
the
English
word
were
used
side
by
side
and
the
survival
of
one
or
the
other
must
often
have
been
a
matter
of
chance.
C
10.
Form
Words:
The
Scandinavian
words
that
made
their
way
into
English
were
not
confined
to
nouns
,adjectives
,
and
verbs,
but
they
were
extended
to
pronouns
,prepositions
,adverbs
and
even
a
part
of
verb
to
be
.
Such
parts
of
speech
are
not
often
transferred
from
one
language
to
another
and
this
is
an
evidence
of
the
intimate
relationship
that
existed
between
the
two
languages.
C
10.Scandinavian
Influence
Outside
the
Standard
Sspeech
:
Scandinavian
elements
were
used
in
dialects
too.
8

9. C
11.
Effects
on
Grammar
and
Syntax
:
The
Scandinavian
influence
not
only
affected
the
vocabulary
but
extended
to
matters
of
grammar
and
syntax
as
well
.
Inflections
are
seldom
transformed
from
one
language
to
another
.
A
number
of
inflectional
elements
peculiar
to
the
Northumbrian
dialect
have
been
attributed
to
Scandinavian
influence
,
among
others
-­‐s
of
the
third
person
singular
,present
indicative
of
verbs.
In
many
words
the
English
and
Scandinavian
languages
differed
chiefly
in
their
inflectional
elements
.
Such
ending
may
create
some
obstacles
in
the
way
of
mutual
understanding.
Syntax
however
was
less
affected
than
vocabulary
.
The
probability
of
such
influence
naturally
varies
with
the
degree
of
intimacy
that
exist
between
the
speakers
of
two
languages.
C
12.
Period
of
Extent
of
the
Influence:
The
number
of
borrowed
Scandinavian
words
that
exist
in
standard
English
may
reach
nine
hundred
.
Such
words
represent
common
everyday
things
and
fundamental
concepts.
The
English
Dialect
Dictionary
contains
1154
simple
words
beginning
with
sc-­‐
(sk)
which
is
a
characteristic
of
Scandinavian
Language.
The
Scandinavian
influence
is
one
of
the
most
interesting
of
the
foreign
influences
that
have
contributed
to
the
English
language.
"
"
9

10. Chapter
five
The
Norman
Conquest
and
the
Subjection
of
English
1066-­‐1200
1.The
Norman
Conquest:
Towards
the
end
of
the
old
English
period
an
event
occurred
which
had
a
greater
effect
on
the
English
language
than
any
other
in
the
course
of
history.
This
event
was
the
Norman
conquest
in
1066.Such
event
resulted
in
the
reduction
of
inflection
and
the
loss
of
a
great
number
of
Germanic
vocabulary.
It
also
resulted
in
the
adoption
of
enormous
number
of
French
words
to
the
extent
that
makes
English
almost
as
much
as
Romance
languages
as
Germanic
language.
2.The
Origin
of
Normandy:
Normandy
is
a
district
in
the
northern
coast
of
France
directly
across
the
channel.
It
became
in
1000
one
of
the
districts
of
the
kingdom
of
France.
The
Normans
soon
absorbed
the
most
important
elements
of
French
civilization
.
They
adopted
the
important
features
of
Frankish
law
,
including
the
idea
of
jury.
It
was
at
that
time
one
of
the
outstanding
legal
systems
of
the
world.
Most
important
event
is
that
they
have
gave
up
their
own
language
and
learned
French.
Before
the
Norman
conquest
the
relations
between
England
and
Normandy
had
been
fairly
close.
Illustration
The
relation
between
Normandy
and
England
1002
AEthelred
the
Unready
married
a
Norman
lady.
He
was
exiled
by
the
Danes
and
took
refuge
with
his
brother
–in-­‐law
in
France.
His
son
Edward
the
Confessor(who
was
brought
up
in
France)
was
restored
to
the
throne
in
1042
from
which
his
father
was
driven
.
3.The
year
1066
:
At
the
beginning
of
1066,after
the
reign
of
twenty-­‐four
of
Edward
the
Confessor
who
died
childless
,
England
was
faced
again
with
the
choice
of
a
successor.
They
elected
Harold
earl
of
the
West
Saxon.
Before
his
death
Edward
assured
his
second
cousin
William
the
duke
of
Normandy
that
he
should
succeed
him
.In
early
manhood
Edward
had
had
to
face
a
number
of
crucial
contests
with
rebellious
barons,
powerful
neighbors
,and
even
his
overlord
the
French
King.
In
1066
the
Normans
under
the
leadership
of
William
won
the
battle
of
Hastings
and
then
they
had
burnt
and
pillaged
the
southeast
of
England
.
By
the
end
of
1066
William
was
crowned
the
king
of
England.
4.
The
Norman
Settlment:
Many
of
the
English
higher
class
had
been
killed
on
the
field
of
Hastings.Thus
William
brought
his
Norman
followers
to
replace
such
class
.
This
process
took
place
for
the
next
four
years
.
In
1072
only
one
of
the
twelve
earls
in
England
was
an
Englishman
.At
the
reign
of
William
as
well
as
the
reign
of
his
sons
the
important
positions
were
mostly
held
by
Normans
or
men
of
foreign
blood.
5.
The
use
of
French
by
the
Upper
Class:
The
numbers
of
the
new
ruling
class
were
sufficiently
predominant
to
continue
to
use
their
own
language
(
French)
For
two
hundred
years
after
the
conquest
French
remained
the
language
of
the
upper
class
in
England
.The
distinction
between
those
who
spoke
French
and
those
who
spoke
English
was
not
ethnic
but
largely
social.
6.Cicumstances
Promoting
the
Continued
Use
of
French:
The
most
important
factor
in
the
continued
use
of
French
by
the
English
upper
class
until
the
beginning
of
the
thirteenth
century
was
the
close
connection
that
existed
through
all
these
years
between
England
and
the
continent
.
7.The
Attitude
Toward
English:
English
become
uncultivated
tongue
,it
was
the
language
of
a
socially
inferior
class
but
there
was
an
evidence
of
mutual
respect
and
peaceful
cooperation.
During
the
period
up
to
1200
the
attitude
of
the
king
and
the
upper
class
towards
the
English
language
may
be
characterized
as
one
of
simple
indifference
.
They
didn’t
cultivate
English
because
their
activities
in
England
did
not
necessitate
it
and
their
constant
concern
with
continental
affairs
make
French
for
them
more
useful.
8.
French
Literature
at
the
English
Court:
Literature
played
an
important
part
in
the
lives
of
the
leisured
class.
Thus
a
considerable
body
of
French
literature
being
produced
in
England
from
the
beginning
of
the
12th
century.
9.Fusion
of
the
Two
People:
After
a
few
years
of
the
conquest
people
accepted
the
new
order
as
a
fact
and
adjusted
themselves
to
it.
All
the
inhabitance
of
England
were
described
as
English
.
This
early
fusion
between
French
and
English
was
evident
in
the
marriage
of
the
Normans
to
English
women.
It
is
evident
from
the
way
in
which
the
English
gave
their
support
to
their
rulers.
10.
The
Disfusion
of
French
and
English:
French
was
the
language
of
the
court
and
the
upper
classes,
English
was
the
speech
of
the
mass
of
the
people.
The
relation
of
two
folds:
10

11. a) knowledge
of
English
among
the
upper
class:
French
was
not
confined
to
persons
of
foreign
extraction
,
but
all
those
who
were
associated
with
the
governing
class
soon
acquired
a
command
of
it.
It
was
a
mark
of
social
distinction.
Since
English
was
the
language
of
the
largest
part
of
the
population
,many
of
the
upper
class
would
acquire
some
familiarity
with
it.
Most
of
them
could
understand
the
language
but
could
not
speak
it
.English
survived
for
a
considerable
time
in
some
Monastries
for
some
bishops
could
not
speak
English.
b)
Knowledge
of
French
among
the
middle
class:
By
the
end
of
the
12th
century
a
knowledge
of
English
was
not
unusual
among
the
upper
class,
and
French
was
also
found
among
the
lower
social
scale
.
knights
as
well
as
the
middle
class
cultivated
French.
In
the
period
preceding
the
loss
of
Normandy
in
1204
there
were
some
who
spoke
only
French
and
many
more
who
spoke
only
English
and
there
was
a
considerable
number
of
bilinguals.
11

12. Chapter
6
The
Re-­‐establishment
of
English
1200-­‐1500
Changing
conditions
after
1200:
As
long
as
England
held
its
conditional
territory
and
the
nobility
of
England
were
united
to
the
continent
by
ties
of
property
and
kinder,
a
real
reason
existed
for
the
continued
use
of
French
among
the
governing
class
in
the
island
.
After
1200
conditions
changed
England
lost
an
important
part
of
its
possessions
abroad
.
The
nobility
gradually
relinquished
their
continental
states.
Consequently
new
feelings
developed
such
as
rivalry
between
the
two
countries
accompanied
by
an
anti
foreign
movement
in
England.
Therefore
the
maintenance
became
artificial
.Due
to
social
and
economic
changes
in
the
14th
century
English
won
its
way
back
to
universal
use.
In
the
15th
century
French
almost
disappeared
.
The
Facts
that
Caused
the
Disappearance
of
French:
The
loss
of
Normandy:
in
1204
king
John
lost
Normandy
which
was
binding
England
to
the
continent
.
(the
bridge
of
England
to
the
continent
).
He
married
Isabel
who
was
betrothed
engaged(in
marriage
contract)
to
a
head
of
powerful
and
ambitious
family.
John
attacked
this
family
which
complained
to
the
king
of
France
Philip.
The
latter
summoned
john
1202
to
appear
before
his
court
at
Paris
.
John
thought
that
since
he
was
the
king
of
England
he
wasn’t
subject
to
the
French
law
.
On
the
day
of
the
trial
John
did
not
appear,
therefore
the
court
declared
his
territory
(Normandy)confiscated
.
Thus
Philip
carried
out
the
decision
of
the
court
and
invaded
Normandy.
After
loosing
Normandy
,john
lost
his
supporters
one
after
another.
He
lost
his
popularity
after
the
death
of
his
nephew
who
was
married
to
Philip’s
daughter
who
was
murdered
too.
The
loss
of
Normandy
was
beneficial
to
the
English
language
as
well
as
to
the
other
aspects
.The
King
and
nobels
started
to
look
upon
England
as
their
priority
.
The
island
king
soon
had
his
own
political
and
economic
goals
which
were
not
the
same
of
those
of
France.
Separation
of
the
French
and
the
English
Nobilty:
After
the
Norman
conquest
a
large
number
of
the
nobility
held
lands
in
both
countries
(
England
and
France)Thus
existed
a
kind
of
interlocking
aristocracy
and
it
was
difficult
for
some
of
the
English
nobility
to
say
whether
they
belonged
to
England
or
to
the
continent.
In
1204
the
king
of
France
announced
that
he
had
confiscated
the
lands
of
several
great
barons.
The
families
who
had
estates
on
both
sides
where
forced
to
give
up
one
or
the
other.
Some
nobles
preferd
their
larger
holdings
in
England
and
gave
up
their
Norman
lands
.After
1250
all
the
nobility
of
England
consider
themselves
English.
France
Reinforcements:
With
the
separation
of
French
and
English
Nobility
,the
Norman
nobility
was
forced
to
identify
itself
with
England.
Consequently
the
country
witnessed
the
invasion
of
foreigners
mainly
from
south
of
France
at
the
reign
of
king
john
.
It
increased
at
the
time
of
his
son
Henry
III
(his
mother
and
wife
were
French)
During
king
Henry’s
reign
all
the
native
officials
of
the
court
were
dismissed
from
their
offices
and
replaced
by
foreigners
.
Those
foreigners
were
placed
in
charge
of
everything
and
they
oppress
the
English
subjects
and
nobles
and
accused
them
of
treachery
to
the
king.
In
1236
Henry
was
married
to
Eleanor
.
Many
of
the
relatives
came
to
England
and
the
king
rewarded
them
with
lands
possessions
and
money.
e.g
(one
of
her
uncles
was
appointed
earl
of
Richmond)Henry
III
1216-­‐1272
during
his
long
reign
the
country
was
eaten
up
by
strangers
who
were
not
only
French
but
of
other
nations
such
as
Romans
and
Spanish.
The
Reaction
Against
Foreigners
and
Growth
of
National
Feeling:
in
1234
started
the
policy
of
(England
for
the
English)
A
number
of
bishops
told
the
king
that
the
situation
was
not
wise
or
safe
but
rather
dangerous
to
the
whole
country
because
these
aliens
hate
the
English
people.
Upon
this
threat
the
king
dismissed
the
foreigners
from
offices.
Those
foreigners
didn’t
understand
the
English
tongue
,
they
lacked
faith
and
cause
the
country
to
be
poor.
The
reaction
against
foreigners
caused
some
wars
“Baron’s”
was
in
(1258-­‐1265)
during
which
the
foreigners
were
driven
from
England
when
peace
was
finally
restored
and
Edward
I(1272-­‐1307)
came
to
the
throne
we
enter
upon
a
period
in
which
England
became
conscious
of
its
unity
when
the
governmental
officials
are
for
most
part
English.
Thus
the
foreign
attack
in
the
thirteenth
century
undoubtedly
delayed
the
natural
spread
of
the
use
of
English
by
the
upper
class.
French
Cultural
Ascendency
in
Europe:
The
stimulus
given
to
the
use
of
French
in
England
by
foreign
additions
to
the
upper
class
coincides
with
the
wide
popularity
that
the
French
language
enjoyed
all
over
Europe
during
the
thirteenth
century
.Even
some
books
were
translated
into
French
because
it
was
common
to
all
people.
The
prestige
of
French
civilization
was
carried
out
by
the
greatest
12

13. medieval
literature
By
the
fame
of
the
university
of
France
and
by
the
Normans
themselves.
These
were
the
reasons
for
the
continued
use
of
French
among
political
circle
in
England.
English
and
French
in
the
Thirteenth
Century
:
The
thirteenth
century
was
described
as
a
period
of
shifting
emphasis
upon
the
two
languages
spoken
in
England.
The
upper
class
continued
to
use
French
as
was
the
case
in
the
12the
century
however,
the
reasons
for
doing
so
were
not
the
same
.
French
became
a
cultivated
tongue
supported
by
social
custom
and
by
business
and
administrative
conventions
.At
the
same
time
English
was
restoring
its
recognition
when
the
separation
of
the
English
nobles
from
their
interest
in
France
had
been
completed
(English)
it
was
becoming
generally
used
by
the
upper
classes
.It
was
at
this
time
the
adoption
of
the
French
words
into
the
English
language
took
place
on
a
large
scale.
Their
French
words
occurs
when
those
who
know
French
and
have
been
accustomed
to
use
it
try
to
express
themselves
in
English.
Moreover
the
literature
intended
for
polite
circles
begin
to
be
made
over
from
French
into
English
.
By
the
end
of
the
century
the
young
generation
of
nobility
started
to
speak
English
as
their
mother
tongue
and
had
to
be
taught
French
with
English
glosses.
French
was
used
by
the
upper
class
as
well
as
in
parliament,
in
the
low
court,
public
negotiations.
French
was
read
by
the
educated
.
As
the
use
of
French
declined
French
appeared
as
either
in
court
or
peculiar(example
:mistaken
in
gender
by
some
writers
using
La
before
a
man’s
name
and
Le
before
a
wonan’s
name
.
Compare
to
the
decline
of
the
use
of
French
the
use
of
English
spread
among
the
upper
.
Evidence
of
the
spread
of
English
is
little
treaties
to
teach
children
French
when
French
was
treated
as
a
foreign
language.
Latin
was
the
language
of
record.
To
sum
up
the
situation
in
the
latter
part
of
13th
century
,
English
was
widely
known
among
all
classes
,though
not
recognized
by
everyone.
Attempts
to
Arrest
the
Decline
of
French:
After
the
close
of
13th
century
it
was
clear
that
the
use
of
French
was
very
weak.
The
people
had
a
strong
tendency
to
speak
English
specially
in
church
and
university.
The
100
years
war:
During
he
12th
century
the
connection
of
England
with
the
contenint
have
been
broken.
It
caused
a
hostile
atmosphere.
One
of
the
causes
of
such
conflect
between
England
and
France
was
the
interference
of
France
in
England’s
efforts
to
control
Scotland.
This
led
to
Edward
III
invasion
of
France.These
wars
lasted
from
1337-­‐1453.
The
100
was
no
doubt
one
of
the
causes
of
the
disuse
of
French.
The
Rise
of
the
Middle
Class:
One
of
the
main
reasons
for
the
restoration
of
the
English
prestige
was
the
improvement
of
the
conditions
of
the
majority
of
people
and
the
rise
of
the
middle
class.
The
importance
of
a
language
is
largely
determined
by
the
importance
of
the
people
who
speak
it.
What
gives
importance
to
the
language
?
During
the
last
part
of
the
middle
English
period
the
condition
of
the
laboring
class
was
rapidly
improving.
(e.g.
fixed
money
payment)The
reason
for
the
change
?
In
the
year
1348
appeared
in
the
southeast
of
England
the
first
case
of
a
disease,
which
spread
fast
for
it
was
contagious
once
it
hits
in
two
or
three
days
the
victim
either
died
or
showed
signs
of
recovery.
The
death
rate
approximated
30%.
Therefore
it
was
called
“The
Black
Death’
Plague.
This
calamity
affected
the
poor
more
than
the
rich.
The
loss
of
great
number
of
the
poor
caused
shortage
of
labor
which
consequently
caused
the
rise
in
wages.
The
black
death
increased
the
economic
importance
of
the
laboring
class
along
with
the
importance
of
the
English
language
which
they
spoke
.What
caused
the
rise
of
the
importance
of
the
English
language.
After
the
black
death
(
the
rise
of
the
importance
of
laboring
class
who
spoke
English
witnessed
the
rise
of
another
group
The
Craftsmen
and
the
Merchants
class.
As
the
towns
fold
were
engaged
in
trade
and
or
in
manufacturing
craft
and
they
were
unified
for
their
mutual
protection
and
advantages
.
Thus
ocurred
In
each
town
an
independent
wealthy
and
powerful
class
between
rural
peasants
and
the
aristocracy
.Such
changes
in
the
social
and
economic
life
benefited
particularly
the
English
–speaking
part
of
the
population.
General
Adoption
of
English
in
the
Fourteenth
century:
At
the
beginning
of
the
14th
century
English
was
once
more
known
by
everyone
.
So
learned
and
unlearned
understand
English.This
situation
was
proved
by
texts
from
that
age.
More
over
it
was
even
spoken
by
many
nobles.
However
French
still
was
used
at
the
court.
Some
writings
indicated
that
French
was
the
language
of
two
groups
,
the
educated
class
and
the
French
,
church,
low
court
(educated
people
include
legal
profession)
up
to
1362In
fact
people
who
could
speak
French
in
the
14th
century
were
billingulals.(
e.g
Edward
III
knew
English.)
In
1362
for
the
first
time
English
was
used
in
the
parliament
.
13

14. The
best
description
to
the
situation
is
to
say
that
in
the
14th
century
English
became
again
the
mother
tongue
of
all
England.
As
for
schools
it
was
after
1349
that
English
began
to
be
used
in
the
schools.
Increasing
Ignorance
of
the
French
in
the
Fifteeth
Century:
By
the
15th
century
the
ability
to
speak
French
fluently
was
an
accomplishment
.
Even
the
ability
to
write
it
was
becoming
less
general
among
people
of
position.
French
was
a
language
of
culture
and
fashion.
When
French
went
out
of
use
as
a
spoken
language
in
England
the
reasons
for
using
French
has
changed
.
They
stated
three
reasons
for
learning
French
:
first
it
was
the
need
to
communicate
with
their
French
neighbors
in
France.
Second,
the
laws
are
largely
in
French.
And
finally
sofesticated
letters
were
written
in
French.
The
first
of
course
is
valid
today.
But
the
other
two
disappeared
by
the
time.
The
Use
of
English
in
Writing:
Latin
was
the
language
of
writing
for
along
time
because
people
who
could
write
Latin
could
do
so
because
of
its
international
character
and
the
feeling
that
it
was
a
language
that
had
become
fixed
while
the
languages
seemed
to
be
variable,
unregulated
and
in
a
constant
state
of
change.
It
was
in
the
15thcentury
that
English
succeed
in
displacing
both
Latin
and
French
in
writing
.It
was
the
reign
of
Henry
V(
1413-­‐1422)
that
marked
the
turning
point
in
the
use
of
English
in
writing.
1425
represents
the
time
at
which
English
begins
to
be
generally
adopted
in
writing
.
Middle
English
Literature:
The
literature
written
in
England
during
the
middle
English
period
reflects
the
changes
in
the
use
and
neglect
of
English
.
The
time
French
was
the
language
of
the
upper
class
,
the
books
they
read
were
in
French.From
1150-­‐1250
English
was
the
language
of
the
middle
and
lower
class.
After
the
separation
of
the
English
nobility
from
France
shift
towards
the
use
of
English
began
and
that
affected
its
literature
started
to
have
romantic
literature
and
translations
and
adoptions,
from
French
begin
to
be
made.
The
general
adoption
of
English
by
all
classes
in
the
latter
half
of
the
14th
century
,
gave
rise
to
a
body
of
literature
which
represents
the
high
point
in
English
literary
achievement
in
the
middle
ages.
1340-­‐
1400
period
of
great
individual
writers.
Chauser
greatest
English
poet
before
Shakespeare.
The
literature
at
the
latter
14th
century
form
an
outstanding
period
in
Middle
English
literature.
They
present
proof
of
the
Secure
position
of
the
English
language
had
attained.
15th
century
is
known
as
imitative
period
because
much
of
the
poetry
written
was
written
in
emulation
of
Chaucer.
And
also
called
transition
period
because
it
covers
a
large
part
of
the
interval
between
the
age
of
Chaucer
and
the
age
of
Shakespeare
.Middle
English
literature
throw
interesting
lights
on
the
fortunes
of
the
English
language.
"
"
14

15.
Chapter
7
Middle
English
1150-­‐1500:
Middle
English
is
a
period
of
great
change.
This
period
has
witnessed
drastic
change
in
the
English
language
more
than
any
time.
The
causes
of
such
changes:
1.
The
Norman
conquest.
2.
Conditions
that
followed
the
conquest.
3.
Tendencies
to
manifest
themselves
in
old
English.
Do
you
think
changes
would
have
happened
in
the
language
if
the
Norman
conquest
didn’t
occur?
Due
to
the
conquest
the
changes
took
place
rapidly.
The
changes
of
this
period
affected
English
in
both
its
grammar
and
vocabulary.
Regarding
the
grammar
it
reduced
English
from
a
highly
inflected
language
to
analytic
one.
As
for
the
vocabulary
large
part
of
the
old
English
word-­‐stock
was
lost
and
thousands
of
French
and
Latin
were
borrowed.
Decay
of
Inflectional
English:
The
distinctive
changes
in
grammar
was
marked
by
the
reduction
of
inflectional
endings
of
the
noun
and
adjective
,
making
distinctions
in
number,
case
or
gender
were
altered
in
pronunciation
that
they
lost
their
distinctive
form
and
hens
their
usefulness.
The
loss
of
inflection
appeared
also
in
verbs.
The
reasons
for
the
loss
of
inflectional
endings:
1.The
phonetic
changes.
2.
The
operation
of
analogy.
The
earliest
was
the
change
of
final-­‐m
to
-­‐n
either
for
plural
nouns
or
adjectives
e.g.
the
muðum
(mouths)
muðun
.Such
–n
of
inflectional
ending
was
later
dropped
(muðu
)
The
vowels
(a,o,u,e)
in
inflectional
endings
were
transferred
to
a
sound
called
“indeterminate
vowel”
which
came
to
be
written
“e”
and
rarely
(I,y,u).
Consequently
a
number
of
originally
distinct
endings
(-­‐a,-­‐u,-­‐e,
-­‐an
,-­‐um)
were
reduced
to
a
uniform
–e.
Such
changes
have
been
found
in
the
old
English
10th
century.
Though
the
pronunciation
has
changed
the
letters
were
preserved
in
writing
due
to
the
tendency
of
the
(conservatives)
scribes
to
preserve
the
traditional
spelling.
The
Noun:
The
most
distinctive
ending(suffix)
is
the
–s
of
the
possessive
singular
and
of
the
nominative
and
accusative
plural.
Since
these
two
cases
of
the
plural
,
were
those
most
frequently
used.
The
–s
came
to
be
thought
of
as
the
sign
of
the
plural
and
was
extended
to
all
plural
forms.(which
is
identical
to
what
is
used
today).In
early
Middle
English
only
two
methods
of
indicating
the
plural
remained
:
the
–s
or
–es
(from
the
strong
declension
and
–en
(oxen)from
the
weak
declension.
In
fact
–s
has
become
the
universal
sign
of
the
plural
.
The
Adjectives:
Changes
in
the
forms
of
adjectives
as
the
nouns
were
partly
a
result
of
the
sound
changes
and
partly
a
result
of
the
extensive
working
of
analogy.
1
distinction
between
plural
and
singular
disappeared
both
forms
ended
with
–e
blinda
,blindan
=
blinde
The
only
ending
which
remained
to
the
adjectives
was
often
without
distinctive
grammatical
meaning.
In
the
fourteenth
century
final
–e
ceased
to
be
pronounced
yet
it
was
maintained
in
writing
.
Thus
the
adjective
became
uninflected
word
by
the
end
of
the
middle
period.
The
Pronouns:
Due
to
the
decay
of
inflections
the
language
depend
less
upon
formal
indications
of
gender
,
case
and
number(as
in
adjectives).
It
depends
on
word
order
and
the
prepositions
to
indicate
the
relation
of
words
in
a
sentence.
The
reduction
of
inflection
was
apparent
in
the
demonstratives
which
used
to
have
different
forms
for
number
,
gender
and
case
that
disappeared
and
they
were
reduced
to
what
are
known
today
:this
,that
,those
and
these.
However
regarding
personal
pronouns
there
was
a
need
for
separate
forms
for
the
different
genders
and
cases,
thus
most
of
the
distinctions
that
existed
in
old
English
were
retained.
The
changes
happened
earlier
were
the
combination
of
the
dative
and
accusative
cases
under
that
of
the
dative
(him,
her,
them)
For
the
nuter
the
form
of
the
accusative
(
he
,
it)
became
the
objective
case
because
it
was
like
the
nominative
and
because
the
dative
would
(him)
be
confused
with
corresponding
case
of
the
masculine.
One
of
the
changes
(simplification)
was
the
loss
of
the
dual
number.
The
change
was
gradual
and
both
the
strong
and
weak
forms
were
used
side
by
side
.e.g
the
verbs
which
changes
to
the
weak
form
have
the
old
strong
form
preserved
as
in
(
climb-­‐clomb)
The
Verbs:
The
prominent
changes
in
the
verbs
during
the
Middle
English
period
were
the
loss
of
strong
conjugation
(inflection
of
verbs)
15