sem 2 thermal comfort and passive design

M.ARCH (ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE)
THERMAL COMFORT AND PASSIVE DESIGN
SUBMITTED TO
SUBMITTED BY
TADIBOINA SAMANTHA KUMAR
SEMESTER 2

CONTENTS
OBJECTIVES:
● The main objective of this course is to explore the relationship between architectural
form, materials and environmental performance, and how this relation should evolve
in response to climate and emerging technical capabilities.
UNIT I HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
➔ Atmospheric and thermal comfort,
➔ building performance, and occupant health, safety, and productivity.
➔ Factors responsible, energy systems for human comfort,
➔ PPD & PMV analysis
UNIT II NATURAL INFLUENCES
➔ Micro and Macro thermal comfort scales
Interpreting Material data through Bioclimatic charts
➔ Sun path ,Passive strategies ,Solar heat gain ,Solar radiation,Stack effect ,etc.
UNIT III DESIGN ELEMENTS
➔ Modifications of Architectural & Landscape Elements
➔ Fenestration, roof, walls, flooring, trees and landscape.
Climatic zones and Architectural features
➔ Courtyard ,Cross ventilation,Daylight factor, Walls ,Trombe wall, Buried pipe system
,Wind, Velocity ,Wind tower etc.
UNIT IV BUILDING MATERIALS
➔ Properties of building materials related to Climatic zones
➔ Properties of Heat transfer and energy flow, U-value , Appropriate materials.
➔ Mass materials/components selection strategy
➔ Photovoltaic
➔ Recycled materials
➔ Utilization of building water conserving installation
➔ Evaporative coolers.
UNIT V HUMAN COMFORT STANDARDS
➔ Designing for optimum Day lighting
➔ Ventilation and Thermal Comfort Standards.
➔ Acoustics
➔ Man Made influences
➔ Sick Building Syndrome
➔ Indoor Environment and design of Healthy buildings.
➔ Adaptive model of thermal comfort and its application to sustainable design of
buildings.
OUTCOMES:
● Understand Human thermal response to natural elements and the influence of
architectural design elements.
● Understand human thermal comfort and the means to achieving the same.

UNIT I HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
➔ Atmospheric and thermal comfort,
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is
assessed by subjective evaluation.
Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the
important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers.
Most people will feel comfortable at room temperature, colloquially a range of temperatures around 20 to 22 °C
(68 to 72 °F),but this may vary greatly between individuals and depending on factors such as activity level,
clothing, and humidity.
➔ Factors responsible,
The six basic factors
The most commonly used indicator of thermal comfort is air temperature – it is easy to use and most people can
relate to it. However, air temperature alone is not a valid or accurate indicator of thermal comfort or thermal
stress. It should always be considered in relation to other environmental and personal factors.
The six factors affecting thermal comfort are both environmental and personal. These factors may be
independent of each other, but together contribute to an employee’s thermal comfort.
Environmental factors:
● Air temperature
● Radiant temperature
● Air velocity
● Humidity
Personal factors:
● Clothing Insulation
● Metabolic heat
Psychological parameters, such as individual expectations.
Environmental factors
Air temperature
This is the temperature of the air surrounding the body. It is usually given in degrees Celsius (°C).
Radiant temperature
Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from a warm object. Radiant heat may be present if there are heat
sources in an environment.
Radiant temperature has a greater influence than air temperature on how we lose or gain heat to the
environment.
Examples of radiant heat sources include: the sun; fire; electric fires; ovens; kiln walls; cookers; dryers; hot
surfaces and machinery, molten metals etc.
Air velocity
This describes the speed of air moving across the employee and may help cool them if the air is cooler than the
environment.

Air velocity is an important factor in thermal comfort for example:
● still or stagnant air in indoor environments that are artificially heated may cause people to feel
stuffy. It may also lead to a build-up in odour
● moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase heat loss through convection without any
change in air temperature
● physical activity also increases air movement, so air velocity may be corrected to account for a
person's level of physical activity
● small air movements in cool or cold environments may be perceived as a draught as people are
particularly sensitive to these movements
Humidity
If water is heated and it evaporates to the surrounding environment, the resulting amount of water in the air will
provide humidity.
Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum amount of
water vapour that the air can hold at that air temperature.
Relative humidity between 40% and 70% does not have a major impact on thermal comfort. In workplaces
which are not air conditioned, or where the weather conditions outdoors may influence the indoor thermal
environment, relative humidity may be higher than 70%. Humidity in indoor environments can vary greatly, and
may be dependent on whether there are drying processes (paper mills, laundry etc) where steam is given off.
High humidity environments have a lot of vapour in the air, which prevents the evaporation of sweat from the
skin. In hot environments, humidity is important because less sweat evaporates when humidity is high (80%+).
The evaporation of sweat is the main method of heat reduction.
Personal factors
Clothing insulation
Thermal comfort is very much dependent on the insulating effect of clothing on the wearer.
Wearing too much clothing or PPE may be a primary cause of heat stress even if the environment is not
considered warm or hot.
If clothing does not provide enough insulation, the wearer may be at risk from cold injuries such as frostbite or
hypothermia in cold conditions.
Clothing is both a potential cause of thermal discomfort as well as a control for it as we adapt to the climate in
which we work. You may add layers of clothing if you feel cold, or remove layers of clothing if you feel warm.
Work rate/metabolic heat
The more physical work we do, the more heat we produce. The more heat we produce, the more heat needs to be
lost so we don’t overheat. The impact of metabolic rate on thermal comfort is critical.
A person’s physical characteristics should always be borne in mind when considering their thermal comfort, as
factors such as their size and weight, age, fitness level and sex can all have an impact on how they feel, even if
other factors such as air temperature, humidity and air velocity are all constant.
The thermal factors comprise such meteorological elements as

air temperature, air humidity,wind velocity, short and longwave radiation,
which have a thermo-physiological effect on man outdoors and indoors;
the significance to health is associated with the close linking of thermoregulation and circulatory regulation.
➔ building performance, and occupant health, safety, and productivity.
Effects of Green Buildings on Employe
SOURCE: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920980/
We investigated the effects of improved indoor environmental quality (IEQ) on perceived health and
productivity in occupants who moved from
Environmental Design ratings) office buildings.
air temperature, air humidity,wind velocity, short and longwave radiation,
physiological effect on man outdoors and indoors;
gnificance to health is associated with the close linking of thermoregulation and circulatory regulation.
building performance, and occupant health, safety, and productivity.
Effects of Green Buildings on Employee Health and Productivity
SOURCE: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920980/
productivity in occupants who moved from conventional to green (according to Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design ratings) office buildings.
gnificance to health is associated with the close linking of thermoregulation and circulatory regulation.
building performance, and occupant health, safety, and productivity.
conventional to green (according to Leadership in Energy and

In 2 retrospective–prospective case studies we found that improved IEQ contributed to reductions in perceived
absenteeism and work hours affected
improvements in productivity.
These preliminary findings indicate that green buildings may positively affect public health.
IEQ can negatively affect occupants' physical heal
through poor air quality, extreme temperatures, excess humidity, and insufficient ventilation and
psychological health (e.g., depression and stress) through inadequate lighting, acoustics, and ergono
design.
According to a system of LEED–IEQ credits defined by 7 attributes: indoor air quality, temperature,
humidity, ventilation, lighting, acoustics, and ergonomic design and safety.
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
being and productivity structure.
➔ energy systems for human comfort,
With environmental protection posing as the number one global problem, man has no choice but to reduce his
energy consumption. One way to accompl
thermal comfort in buildings.
The conventional and modern designs of wind towers can successfully be used in hot arid regions to maintain
thermal comfort (with or without the use of ceil
it.
The utilisation and operating opportunities components, increase the reduction of heat losses by varying the
thermal insulation, optimise the lighting distribution with louver screens
coolness in indoor spaces.
prospective case studies we found that improved IEQ contributed to reductions in perceived
absenteeism and work hours affected by asthma, respiratory allergies, depression, and stress and to self
IEQ can negatively affect occupants' physical health (e.g., asthma exacerbation and respiratory allergies)
psychological health (e.g., depression and stress) through inadequate lighting, acoustics, and ergono
IEQ credits defined by 7 attributes: indoor air quality, temperature,
humidity, ventilation, lighting, acoustics, and ergonomic design and safety.
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)–indoor environmental quality (IEQ) occupant well
energy systems for human comfort,
energy consumption. One way to accomplish this is to resort to passive and low-energy systems to maintain
thermal comfort (with or without the use of ceiling fans) during all hours of the cooling season, or a fraction of
thermal insulation, optimise the lighting distribution with louver screens and operate mechanical ventilation for
prospective case studies we found that improved IEQ contributed to reductions in perceived
by asthma, respiratory allergies, depression, and stress and to self-reported
th (e.g., asthma exacerbation and respiratory allergies)
psychological health (e.g., depression and stress) through inadequate lighting, acoustics, and ergonomic
IEQ credits defined by 7 attributes: indoor air quality, temperature,
onmental quality (IEQ) occupant well-
energy systems to maintain
ing fans) during all hours of the cooling season, or a fraction of
and operate mechanical ventilation for

Application of simple passive cooling measure is effective in reducing the cooling load of buildings in hot and
humid climates.
Fourty-three percent reductions can be achieved using a combination of well-established technologies such as
glazing, shading, insulation, and natural ventilation.
More advanced passive cooling techniques such as roof pond, dynamic insulation, and evaporative water jacket
need to be considered more closely.
➔ PPD & PMV analysis
Thermal comfort is calculated as a heat transfer energy balance. Heat transfer through radiation, convection, and
conduction are balanced against the occupant’s metabolic rate.
The heat transfer occurs between the environment and the human body, which has an area of 19 ft2
(1.81 m2
) .
If the heat leaving the occupant is greater than the heat entering the occupant, the thermal perception is
“cold.”
If the heat entering the occupant is greater than the heat leaving the occupant, the thermal perception is
“warm” or “hot.”
A method of describing thermal comfort was developed by Ole Fanger and is referred to as Predicted Mean
Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD).
Depending on the heat transfer, via heat gain or loss, the Thermoregulation system in a human brain regulates
skin temperature to maintain a constant core body temperature of 36.5° C.
● meanwhile indoor temperature 22°C to 24°C,
● Relative humidity 42% to 48%,
● Carbon monoxide 0 to 9ppm,
● carbon dioxide 0 to 1000ppm and Oxygen 19.0±0.2% As per ASHARE.
Thermal comfort index of the model are calculated using the fanger model. The volume of data obtained from
the experimental value helps to find the comfort condition in high level accuracy.
The fanger model of thermal comfort is calculated by predicted mean vote and predicted percentage dissatisfied.
The PMV and PPD model is based on the combined influence of relative humidity, air temperature, mean
radiant temperature, air movement to that of clothing and activity level.
Predicted Mean Vote
The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) refers to a thermal scale that runs from Cold (-3) to Hot (+3), originally
developed by Fanger and later adopted as an ISO standard. The original data was collected by subjecting a large
number of people (reputedly many thousands of Israeli soldiers) to different conditions within a climate
chamber and having them select a position on the scale the best described their comfort sensation. A
mathematical model of the relationship between all the environmental and physiological factors considered was
then derived from the data.

.
The recommended acceptable PMV range for thermal comfort from ASHRAE 55 is between
an interior space.
M = metabolic rate
L = thermal load defined as the difference between the internal heat production and the heat loss to the actual
environment for a person hypothetically kept at comfort values of skin temperature and evaporative heat loss by
sweating at the actual activity level.
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) predicts the percentage of occupants that will be dissatisfied with the
thermal conditions. It is a function of PMV, given that as PMV moves further from 0, or neutral, PPD increases.
The maximum number of people dissatisfied with their comfort conditions is 100% and, as you can never please
all of the people all of the time, the recommended acceptable PPD range for thermal comfort from ASHRAE 55
is less than 10% persons dissatisfied
The recommended acceptable PMV range for thermal comfort from ASHRAE 55 is between
difference between the internal heat production and the heat loss to the actual
sweating at the actual activity level.
Dissatisfied
er of people dissatisfied with their comfort conditions is 100% and, as you can never please
less than 10% persons dissatisfied for an interior space.
The recommended acceptable PMV range for thermal comfort from ASHRAE 55 is between -0.5 and +0.5 for
difference between the internal heat production and the heat loss to the actual
er of people dissatisfied with their comfort conditions is 100% and, as you can never please

PPD is a quantitative measure of the thermal comfort of a group of people at a particular thermal environment.
Fanger related the PPD to the PMV as follows:
Lowest Possible Percentage Dissatisfied (LPPD) Index
The LPPD is a quantitative measure of the thermal comfort of a room as a whole for a group of people in a thermally non
uniform environment. It is more useful for large rooms than for small one. As a recommended design target, LPPD is not to
exceed 6%.
➔ Micro and Macro thermal comfort scales
➔ Sun path ,
➔ Passive strategies ,
➔ Solar heat gain ,
➔ Solar radiation,
➔ Stack effect ,etc.
Description of bioclimatic charts
Fanger related the PPD to the PMV as follows:
Lowest Possible Percentage Dissatisfied (LPPD) Index
e of the thermal comfort of a room as a whole for a group of people in a thermally non
nd Macro thermal comfort scales
e of the thermal comfort of a room as a whole for a group of people in a thermally non-

Olgyay were the pioneers of bioclimatic cha
They proposed a process of building design which is based on human thermal requirements and local climatic
conditions.
In the bioclimatic charts they determine the comfort zone in relation to air temperature, humidity, mean radiant
heat, wind speed, solar radiation and cooling by evaporation.
The climatic data that are necessary in order to design the bioclimatic charts are the maximum and minimum air
temperatures and the corresponding minimum and maximum relative humidity values, either monthly, d
hourly.
The resulting graphs represent the external conditions. Although the indoor environmental conditions of the
building depend on many other factors such as the size, the thermal inertia of the materials and air
transportation, the charts clearly show whether indoor conditions are hot, cold or comfortable.
Their most important role is that they determine the heating and cooling design strategies for restoring comfort
during different months all over the year.
The bioclimatic charts are usually applied in areas with temperate climate and buildings where the activity is
mainly sedentary and users wear regular dressing. The dry bulb temperatures are recorded on the abscissa axis
and the relative humidity in the ordinate axis.
The comfort zone is defined between 21C and 27.5C and is removable slightly down for the winter and slightly
upward for the summer.
The relative humidity is defined between 30% and 65% with acceptable limits of 20
The lower limit of the comfort zone defines the
The area of the trapezoid defines the comfort zone.
The comfort zone separates the map into two regions. The region above the boundary line or the shading line is
known as over-heated summer period and therefore the sun protection of openings is required.
The lower area below the shading line is known as under
solar radiation is necessary.
Psychrometric Charts
A psychrometric chart for a given location can tell you information about temperature (wet bulb and dry bulb)
and humidity (relative and absolute). While they may seem overwhelming at first, by learning how the variables
interact, you can begin to use the psychrometric chart to inter
strategies for your location.
Olgyay were the pioneers of bioclimatic charts.
solar radiation and cooling by evaporation.
temperatures and the corresponding minimum and maximum relative humidity values, either monthly, d
early show whether indoor conditions are hot, cold or comfortable.
during different months all over the year.
ually applied in areas with temperate climate and buildings where the activity is
and the relative humidity in the ordinate axis.
zone is defined between 21C and 27.5C and is removable slightly down for the winter and slightly
The relative humidity is defined between 30% and 65% with acceptable limits of 20–78%.
The lower limit of the comfort zone defines the temperature of 21C; above that shading devices are required.
The area of the trapezoid defines the comfort zone.
eriod and therefore the sun protection of openings is required.
The lower area below the shading line is known as under-heated winter season, and therefore additional heat or
given location can tell you information about temperature (wet bulb and dry bulb)
interact, you can begin to use the psychrometric chart to interpret occupant comfort and effective passive design
temperatures and the corresponding minimum and maximum relative humidity values, either monthly, daily or
early show whether indoor conditions are hot, cold or comfortable.
ually applied in areas with temperate climate and buildings where the activity is
zone is defined between 21C and 27.5C and is removable slightly down for the winter and slightly
78%.
temperature of 21C; above that shading devices are required.
eriod and therefore the sun protection of openings is required.
heated winter season, and therefore additional heat or
given location can tell you information about temperature (wet bulb and dry bulb)
pret occupant comfort and effective passive design

Psychrometric charts show temperature vs. humidity, and can be used to express human thermal
comfort, design strategies, and energy requirements for those strategies.
What is a Psychrometric Chart ?
A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the psychrometric processes of air.
Psychrometric processes include physical and thermodynamic properties such as dry bulb temperature, wet bulb
temperature, humidity, enthalpy, and air density.
A psychrometric chart can be used in two different ways.
The first is done by plotting multiple data points, that represent the air conditions at a specific time, on the chart.
Then, overlaying an area that identifies the “comfort zone.”
The comfort zone is defined as the range within occupants are satisfied with the surrounding thermal conditions.
After plotting the air conditions and overlaying the comfort zone, it becomes possible to see how passive design
strategies can extend the comfort zone.

Example of how plotted data on a psychrometric chart can be studied, and related to passive design. In this
chart, the dark blue boxes represent the comfort zone, and the other colors represent design strategies that
have been enabled to study how they can potentially expand the comfort zone. This psychrometric chart was
generated using Climate Consultant.
The chart is also often used by mechanical engineers to dynamically plot points that represent the exterior air
conditions and understand the process the air must go through to reach comfortable conditions for the occupants
inside a building. When using the psychrometric chart for this purpose the data points move around the chart.

Psychrometric charts show temperature vs. humidity, and can be used to express human
thermal comfort, design strategies, and energy requirements for those strategies.
Anatomy of the Psychrometric Chart
Temperature
Every psychrometric chart includes vertical lines that represent the dry bulb temperatures. Air temperature
increases from left to right.
Every psychrometric chart also includes wet bulb temperatures. These lines are indicated at diagonals, and like
dry bulb temperatures they increase from left to right.
Dry bulb temperature lines and Wet bulb temperature lines on a psychrometric chart
Relative Humidity
Another feature indicated on every psychrometric chart is relative humidity lines. These lines are curved, and
begin at 100% along the top of the chart, and decrease moving downward. It is fairly common for these lines to
be indicated in intervals of ten.

Relative humidity lines on a psychrometric chart
Data Points
Psychrometric charts indicate data points for each location they are representing. The style of the data points can
vary depending upon the computer application that was used to generate the psychrometric chart, or if the chart
was generated by hand. Each data point represents a collection of air qualities at a snap shot in time. It can be
hourly, daily, monthly, or even seasonal data. The density of data points on the chart is used to decipher average
conditions. At times it can be useful to view summer and winter data points independently. But viewing them
together allows you to consider all passive design strategies in an integrated manner.
Based on the data points in this example, we can conclude average conditions are
between 30° C and 35° C.
Comfort Zone

The comfort zone is typically indicated by shading a portion of the psychrometric chart. This shaded area is
highly variable per climate and project. The comfort zone is either populated by a software system, or manually
by a designer, based upon the activity to take place in the building and the level of anticipated clothing to be
worn by the occupants.
In this example, we know temperatures greater than 30° C will be considered too hot,
and less than 20°C will be considered too cold.
Other items that can be found on some, but not all psychrometric charts, are as follows.
● Horizontal lines that provide dew point temperature readings along the right hand side of the chart.
This is useful for knowing at what temperature water will begin to condensate. Which can transpire to
mold and insulation with decreased thermal performance if not accurately accounted for in the design
of a building.
● Horizontal lines that provide humidity ratio/moisture content measurements along the right hand side
of the chart. This information aids with understanding the density of the air, which relates to buoyancy
and air quality issues.
● Along the upper left hand side of the chart at times will be diagonal ticks/lines placed at a similar angle
and direction as the wet bulb temperature lines. These are enthalpy measurements that are useful for
understanding heat energy needed, or existing in the air.
Interpreting the Psychrometric Chart
Since psychrometric charts can provide you with a rapid overview of air conditions as they relate to occupant
comfort, some steadfast judgments can be made. For example, is your climate hot and humid, or dry and arid?
How are your occupants going to feel most of the time—too hot, too cold, or comfortable?
Some common examples of these broad conclusions are depicted below.

Temperature (orange = too hot, blue = too cold)
Humidity (blue = too humid, yellow = too dry
Design Strategies and the Psychrometric Chart
After understanding how your climate reads on a psychrometric chart, you can use it to understand what
sustainable design strategies can be best used to improve occupant comfort.
When data points fall to the right of the comfort zone, you will want to reduce the air temperature. An example
strategy to achieve this would be to increase air flow with natural ventilation.
When data points fall to the left of the comfort zone, you will want to increase the air temperature. A common
strategy to do this passively is to incorporate solar heat gains with high thermal mass materials.
When relative humidity is too low it can be increased with evaporative cooling. And when it is too high it can be
decreased with the use of desiccants.
An example of how this sort of analysis could be done is demonstrated below. Climate Consultant was used to
generate all the charts.

Beginning psychrometric chart, with comfort zones depicted for summer and winter clothing levels. The chart also
indicates that only 9.5% of occupants will be comfortable with no design strategies.
Natural ventilation is applied to reduce air temperatures, and occupant comfort moves up to 10%.
Opportunities for passive solar gain are combined with high mass materials, in order to raise air temperatures. As a result,
occupant comfort moves up to 29.1%.
Humidification is combined with passive heating, and occupant comfort reaches 98.9%
Sun path
Reading Sun Path Diagrams
Sun path diagrams can tell you a lot about how the sun will impact your site and building throughout the year.
Stereographic sun path diagrams can be used to read the solar azimuth and altitude for a given location.

● Azimuth Lines - Azimuth angles run around the edge of the diagram.
● Altitude Lines - Altitude angles are represented
center of the diagram out.
● Date Lines - Date lines start on the eastern side of the graph and run to the western side and represent
the path of the sun on one particular day of the year.
● Hour Lines/ Analemma - Hour lines are shown as figure
and represent the position of the sun at a specific hour of the day. The intersection points between date
and hour lines give the position of the sun.
➔ Passive strategies ,
➔ Solar heat gain ,
Solar gain (also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain) refers to the increase in thermal energy of a
space, object or structure as it absorbs incident
The amount of solar gain a space experiences is a function of the total incident solar
of any intervening material to transmit
Passive Cooling
Just like passive heating, cooling your building using passive strategies is important for reducing energy usage
in your building. Specifically, utilizing passive cooling strategies like
can reduce your demand for mechanical cooling while maintaining thermal comfort.
How to read Sunpath Diagrams
At 9am...
on April 1...
the azimuth is 62o
the altitude is 30o
Azimuth angles run around the edge of the diagram.
Altitude angles are represented as concentric circular dotted lines that run from the
Date lines start on the eastern side of the graph and run to the western side and represent
the path of the sun on one particular day of the year.
Hour lines are shown as figure-eight-type lines that intersect the date lines
and hour lines give the position of the sun.
space, object or structure as it absorbs incident solar radiation.
The amount of solar gain a space experiences is a function of the total incident solar irradiance
transmit or resist the radiation.
in your building. Specifically, utilizing passive cooling strategies like natural ventilation, air cooling, and shades
can reduce your demand for mechanical cooling while maintaining thermal comfort.
as concentric circular dotted lines that run from the
Date lines start on the eastern side of the graph and run to the western side and represent
type lines that intersect the date lines
irradiance and of the ability
natural ventilation, air cooling, and shades

For more information on shading design, see the Shading Design page in the building envelope section.
Passive Heating
Passive heating uses the energy of the sun to keep occupants comfortable without the use of mechanical
systems. These concepts will help you design for passive heating.
➔ Stack effect ,etc.
Stack effect or chimney effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys, flue-gas stacks, or
other containers, resulting from air buoyancy. Buoyancy occurs due to a difference in indoor-to-outdoor air
density resulting from temperature and moisture differences. The result is either a positive or negative buoyancy
force. The greater the thermal difference and the height of the structure, the greater the buoyancy force, and thus
the stack effect. The stack effect helps drive natural ventilation, air infiltration, and fires.
Stack Ventilation and Bernoulli's Principle
Stack ventilation and Bernoulli's principle are two kinds of passive ventilation that use air pressure differences
due to height to pull air through the building. Lower pressures higher in the building help pull air upward. The
difference between stack ventilation and Bernoulli's principle is where the pressure difference comes from.
Stack ventilation uses temperature differences to move air. Hot air rises because it is lower pressure. For this
reason, it is sometimes called buoyancy ventilation.
Bernoulli's principle uses wind speed differences to move air. It is a general principle of fluid dynamics, saying
that the faster air moves, the lower its pressure. Architecturally speaking, outdoor air farther from the ground is
less obstructed, so it moves faster than lower air, and thus has lower pressure. This lower pressure can help suck
fresh air through the building. A building's surroundings can greatly affect this strategy, by causing more or less
obstruction.
To design for these effects, the most important consideration is to have a large difference in height between air
inlets and outlets. The bigger the difference, the better.
Towers and chimneys can be useful to carry air up and out, or skylights or clerestories in more modest
buildings. For these strategies to work, air must be able to flow between levels. Multi-story buildings should
have vertical atria or shafts connecting the airflows of different floors.

Solar radiation can be used to enhance stack ventilation in tall open spaces. By allowing solar radiation into the
space (by using equator facing glazing for example), you can heat up the interior surfaces and increase the
temperature which will accelerate stack ventilation between the top and bottom openings.
Installing weatherproof vents to passively ventilate attic spaces in hot climates is an important design strategy
that is often overlooked. In addition to simply preventing overheating, ventilated attics can use these principles
to actually help cool a building. There are several styles of passive roof vents: Open stack, turbine, gable, and
ridge vents, to name a few.
Solar Chimneys
A solar chimney uses the sun's heat to provide cooling, using the stack effect. Solar heat gain warms a column
of air, which then rises, pulling new outside air through the building. They are also called thermal chimneys,
thermosiphons, or thermosyphons.
Advanced solar chimneys can involve Trombe walls or other means of absorbing and storing heat in the
chimney to maximize the sun's effect, and keep it working after sunset. Unlike a Trombe wall, solar chimneys
are generally best when insulated from occupied spaces, so they do not transfer the sun's heat to those spaces but
only provide cooling.

Solar chimney compared to a Trombe wall
Thermal chimneys can also be combined with means of cooling the incoming air, such as evaporative cooling or
geothermal cooling.
Solar chimneys can also be used for heating, much like a Trombe wall is. If the top exterior vents are closed, the
heated air is not exhausted out the top; at the same time, if high interior vents are opened to let the heated air
into occupied spaces, it will provide convective air heating.
This works even on cold and relatively cloudy days. It can be useful for locations with hot summers and cold
winters, switching between cooling and heating by adjusting which vents are open and closed.
Solar chimneys can either heat or cool a space
UNIT III DESIGN ELEMENTS
➔ Modifications of Architectural & Landscape Elements
➔ Fenestration, roof, walls, flooring, trees and landscape.
Climatic zones and Architectural features

➔ Courtyard ,Cross ventilation,Daylight factor, Walls ,Trombe wall, Buried pipe system
,Wind, Velocity ,Wind tower etc.
UNIT IV BUILDING MATERIALS
➔ Properties of building materials related to Climatic zones
Weather has a great impact on the structure and functionality of a building, it is of vital importance to choose
building materials suitable for the weather.

Climate plays a significant role in the life span, durability and environmental performance of
construction materials.
Most historical places and ancient structures have been abandoned for many centuries but they remai
to this day. This is due to the durability of their materials to stand up to the climate condition of the place where
they are located.
People in ancient times used construction materials and techniques to suit the weather conditions of the pla
the intent to keep these places intact and survive for centuries as signs and symbols of their craftsmanship and
hard work.
HOT AND DRY CLIMATE
• General Characteristics :-
• Hot dry weather in summer and cold in winter.
• Very little rainfall and very low humidity.
• Sandy or rocky ground with very low vegetation cover.
• High temp. difference between night and day.
• Hot winds & frequent dust storms
• High summer day time temperatures(32
• In hotter regions above 40 and up to 50°C.
MATERIAL FOR ROOFING
Combinations of waste material (like paper tube) with clay tiles and ferrocrete and other alternative materials
have better thermal performance as compared to tin sheet and RCC.
Paper tube- CT, Lime roll-CT, Mud roll
which show minimum internal surface temperature .
White Roofs:- A white roof is painted with solar reflective white coating and reflects up to 90% of sunlight.
Green Roofs:-A green roof or living roof is a roof
vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane.
Most historical places and ancient structures have been abandoned for many centuries but they remai
People in ancient times used construction materials and techniques to suit the weather conditions of the pla
• Hot dry weather in summer and cold in winter.
d very low humidity.
• Sandy or rocky ground with very low vegetation cover.
• High temp. difference between night and day.
• High summer day time temperatures(32-36° C)
• In hotter regions above 40 and up to 50°C.
have better thermal performance as compared to tin sheet and RCC.
CT, Mud roll- CT, Lime roll-CT and Clay panel- CT are the four roof components
which show minimum internal surface temperature .
A white roof is painted with solar reflective white coating and reflects up to 90% of sunlight.
A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with
vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane.
Most historical places and ancient structures have been abandoned for many centuries but they remain standing
People in ancient times used construction materials and techniques to suit the weather conditions of the place for
CT are the four roof components
A white roof is painted with solar reflective white coating and reflects up to 90% of sunlight.
of a building that is partially or completely covered with

•The huge massive stone is usually joint to a big basin to collect rainwater used to decrease of 6
temperature in summer.
•This allows the natural ventilation through the dome holes and is improved by the white color of the exterior
surface made in lime.
WALLS AND FLOORING
● The thick walls, made of mud, keep the interior cool when the temperature rises to
in summer and warm when it beam and posts drops to 10 degrees in winter.
● Stone and tile flooring tend to perform the best in hot weather, requiring less maintenance and care than
wood or bamboo flooring. That cool touch is a boon in ho
2. Arabic House
•The climate is so dry, the temperature range is so high, there’s a strong solar radiation and the winds can
transport huge amount of dust and sand.
•The huge massive stone is usually joint to a big basin to collect rainwater used to decrease of 6
The thick walls, made of mud, keep the interior cool when the temperature rises to
in summer and warm when it beam and posts drops to 10 degrees in winter.
Stone and tile flooring tend to perform the best in hot weather, requiring less maintenance and care than
wood or bamboo flooring. That cool touch is a boon in hot climates
transport huge amount of dust and sand.
•The huge massive stone is usually joint to a big basin to collect rainwater used to decrease of 6-7°C the interior
The thick walls, made of mud, keep the interior cool when the temperature rises to 40 degrees Celsius
Stone and tile flooring tend to perform the best in hot weather, requiring less maintenance and care than

• Houses placed around a big court dig into the rock: this court is the
•Particular shape protects from the hot climate, but also from the dusty and sandy desert winds
HUMID CLIMATE
General Characteristics:-
● Humidity remains high around 75% but varies from 55%
● Wind Typically low wind velocity.
● Strong Precipitation 2000 TO 5000 mm OF RAINFALL.
MATERIALS FOR HUMID CLIMATE
Roofs:- Majority of the buildings and homes is made of concrete. This is because concrete can withstand
heavy rain downpours.
Sloped roofs are suitable for humid region
FLOORING
Bamboo
A bamboo is layered flooring material. It has natural tendencies to expand and contract with temperature
changes. Ideal as an alternative to solid wood in areas that are moist and humid.
COLD CLIMATE
General Characteristics:-
This climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest
months, and a coldest month average below
The intensity of solar radiation is very low during summer and winter season.
MATERIAL FOR ROOFING
Choose a metal roof. It’s the most durable option, sheds snow with ease and rarely springs a leak. Metal roofs
can shed snow so quickly.
Cement Tiles
Concrete roofing tiles are extremely strong and capable of withstanding the most brutal weather conditions.
Solar Paneled Roofing
Solar paneled roofing can be passive or active. Passive tiles are made of curved glass that captures rising hot air
and guides it to the building's heating system They are UV resistant and extremely strong.
Active solar panels actually convert sunli
• Houses placed around a big court dig into the rock: this court is the central point of the spaces distribution.
Humidity remains high around 75% but varies from 55% - 100%.
low wind velocity.
Strong Precipitation 2000 TO 5000 mm OF RAINFALL.
MATERIALS FOR HUMID CLIMATE
Majority of the buildings and homes is made of concrete. This is because concrete can withstand
mid region
changes. Ideal as an alternative to solid wood in areas that are moist and humid.
months, and a coldest month average below −3 °C (or 0 °C).
The intensity of solar radiation is very low during summer and winter season.
of. It’s the most durable option, sheds snow with ease and rarely springs a leak. Metal roofs
Active solar panels actually convert sunlight (photons) into electricity.
central point of the spaces distribution.
Majority of the buildings and homes is made of concrete. This is because concrete can withstand
of. It’s the most durable option, sheds snow with ease and rarely springs a leak. Metal roofs

MATERIAL FOR FLOORING
Solid timber/Wooden flooring:- It retains heat beautifully in cold climates and will give your home
a warm and natural condition.
Carpeting Floor:- It adds a bit of insulation, which adds comfort co
Tiles Flooring:- It is best for all climate conditions
Choose easy-to-shovel flooring. Gravel paths may look beautiful, but they are nearly impossible to shovel. Main
paths should be made of hard material makes more sense.
MATERIAL FOR WINDOWS
Window glasses form an important part of the windows.
● Multi-pane windows rather than single
saving energy consumption.
● The vacuum created between the different panes works as insulating mat
energy loss.
● Insulating gases are often filled between the panes to reduce energy losses. Some of such gases used
are argon, krypton.
● Using low emissive glass panes which have a metallic oxide coating on the inner surface. The me
oxide coating prevents the transfer of heat from warmer to colder climates.
➔ Properties of Heat transfer and energy flow,
Heat Energy Flows in Buildings
Understanding fundamental heat flows from conduction, convection, and radiation is key
efficient buildings. Moisture flows are also important because moisture holds energy as “latent heat.”
It retains heat beautifully in cold climates and will give your home
It adds a bit of insulation, which adds comfort colder climates.
It is best for all climate conditions
shovel flooring. Gravel paths may look beautiful, but they are nearly impossible to shovel. Main
paths should be made of hard material makes more sense.
Window glasses form an important part of the windows.
pane windows rather than single-pane styles. Double or triple-pane windows are being used for
saving energy consumption.
The vacuum created between the different panes works as insulating material and hence eliminates
Insulating gases are often filled between the panes to reduce energy losses. Some of such gases used
Using low emissive glass panes which have a metallic oxide coating on the inner surface. The me
oxide coating prevents the transfer of heat from warmer to colder climates.
Properties of Heat transfer and energy flow,
Understanding fundamental heat flows from conduction, convection, and radiation is key
It retains heat beautifully in cold climates and will give your home
shovel flooring. Gravel paths may look beautiful, but they are nearly impossible to shovel. Main
pane windows are being used for
erial and hence eliminates
Insulating gases are often filled between the panes to reduce energy losses. Some of such gases used
Using low emissive glass panes which have a metallic oxide coating on the inner surface. The metallic
Understanding fundamental heat flows from conduction, convection, and radiation is key to creating energy

Sensible vs. Latent Heat Flows
There are of two forms of heat flows: sensible heat and latent heat.
1. Sensible heat flow results in a change in temperature.
2. Latent heat flow results in a change in moisture content (often humidity of the air).
Total heat flow is the sum of sensible and latent flows.
Human comfort depends on providing acceptable levels of both temperature (sensible heat) and humidity (latent
heat).
"...but it's a dry heat."
Hot dry air is actually less uncomfortable than
hot humid air, because moisture holds energy
as latent heat.
Sensible heat: The heat associated with change in temperature of a substance/ material/space.
Latent heat: The release or storage of heat associated with change in phase of a substance, without a change in
the substance’s temperature.
In building design, this is often heat required to add/remove moisture content (humidity) in the air.
Sensible vs. latent heat: it takes over five times as much heat to turn water into steam at the same
temperature than it does to heat liquid water from freezing to boiling temperatures.
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Buildings lose sensible heat to the environment (or gain sensible heat from it) in three principal ways:
1) Conduction: The transfer of heat between substances which are in direct contact with each other. Conduction
occurs when heat flows through a solid.
2) Convection: The movement of gasses and liquids caused by heat transfer. As a gas or liquid is heated, it
warms, expands and rises because it is less dense resulting in natural convection.

3) Radiation: When electromagnetic waves travel through space, it is called radiation. When these waves (from
the sun, for example) hit an object, they transfer their heat to that object.
The way that you experience the heat from a fire is a good example of conduction, convection, and
radiation.
1. Heat conducts through materials placed in the fire, like a metal poker. You can stop the conduction
to your hand by using an insulating pad.
2. Heat (and smoke) travels away from the fire through the air. The direction it travels depends on the
wind and pressure differences (convection).
3. Heat radiates from the fire to where you are. You can avoid the radiation by putting a material
between you and the fire, or stepping away.
Latent Heat Properties
When air is too humid, it needs to dehumidified to maintain occupant comfort. This dehumidification requires
the removal of the latent heat and is an important function of HVAC systems. While less common, it is
sometimes necessary to add humidity to buildings during very cold weather to compensate for the inability of
colder air to hold moisture.
Evaporation and condensation, although not usually listed as modes of heat transfer, represent the primary
means by which latent heat is transfer and are an important determinant of human comfort.
➔ U-value , Appropriate materials.
U-values measure the effectiveness of a material as an insulator in buildings.
The lower the U-value is, the better the material is as a heat insulator. For example, here are some typical U-
values for building materials:
● a cavity wall has a U-value of 1.6 W/m²
● a solid brick wall has a U-value of 2.0 W/m²
● a double glazed window has a U-value of 2.8 W/m².

The cavity wall is the best insulator and the double glazed window is the worst insulator.
U-value, or thermal transmittance (reciprocal of R-value)
Thermal transmittance, also known as U-value, is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure (which can be a
single material or a composite), divided by the difference in temperature across that structure.
1. The units of measurement are W/m²K.
2. The better-insulated a structure is, the lower the U-value will be.
3. Workmanship and installation standards can strongly affect the thermal transmittance. If insulation is
fitted poorly, with gaps and cold bridges, then the thermal transmittance can be considerably higher
than desired.
4. Thermal transmittance takes heat loss due to conduction, convection and radiation into account.
Calculating U-value
This example considers a cavity wall:
Material Thickness Conductivity
(k-value)
Resistance =
Thickness ÷
conductivity
(R-value)
Outside surface – – 0.040 K m²/W
Clay bricks 0.100 m 0.77 W/m K⋅ 0.130 K m²/W
Glasswool 0.100 m 0.04 W/m K⋅ 2.500 K m²/W
Concrete blocks 0.100 m 1.13 W/m K⋅ 0.090 K m²/W
Plaster 0.013 m 0.50 W/m K⋅ 0.026 K m²/W
Inside surface – – 0.130 K m²/W
Total 2.916 K m²/W
U-value = 1 ÷ 2.916 = 0.343 W/m²K
Measuring U-value

Whilst design calculations are theoretical, post-construction measurements can also be undertaken.
Thermal transmittance calculations for roofs or walls can be carried out using a heat flux meter.
This consists of a thermopile sensor that is firmly fixed to the test area, to monitor the heat flow from inside to
outside.
Thermal transmittance is derived from dividing average heat flux (flow) by average temperature difference
(between inside and outside) over a continuous period of about 2 weeks (or over a year in the case of a ground
floor slab, due to heat storage in the ground).
The accuracy of measurements is dependent on a number of factors:
● Magnitude of temperature difference (larger = more accurate)
● Weather conditions (cloudy is better than sunny)
● Good adhesion of thermopiles to test area
● Duration of monitoring (longer duration enables a more accurate average)
● More test points enable greater accuracy, to mitigate against anomalies
R-value, or thermal insulance (reciprocal of U-value)
Thermal insulance is the converse of thermal transmittance;
in other words, the ability of a material to resist heat flow.
The units of measurement for thermal transmittance are m²K/W and, again, a higher figure indicates better
performance (in contrast to the lower figure desired for U-value).
k-value, or thermal conductivity (also known as lambda or λ value; reciprocal of thermal resistivity)
Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat.
Consequently, a high thermal conductivity means that heat transfer across a
material will occur at a higher rate; The units of thermal conductivity are
W/m K.⋅
Unlike U-values and R-values however, k-values are not dependent on the thickness of the material.
Y-value, or thermal admittance, or heat transfer coefficient
The ability of a material to absorb and release heat from an internal space, as that space’s temperature changes,
is termed thermal admittance (or heat transfer coefficient),
Psi (Ψ) value, or linear thermal transmittance
The measure of heat loss due to a thermal bridge is termed linear thermal transmittance (as opposed to ‘area’
thermal transmittance that is otherwise termed a U-value), with the units of measurement being, again, W/m²K.
Thermal resistivity (reciprocal of thermal conductivity)
Thermal resistivity is the ability of a material to resist heat conduction
through it. Like k-value, this property is not dependent on the thickness of the
material. The units of thermal resistivity are K m/W.⋅
Thermal conductance (reciprocal of thermal resistance)
This refers to the amount of heat conducted through a material of a given volume, in unit time i.e. the rate of
conduction. As such, the units of measurement are W/K.
Thermal resistance (reciprocal of thermal conductance)
This is a measure of how well a material can resist heat conduction through it, and is measured in K/W. As with
thermal conductance, it is a measure of the transfer rate for a given volume.

➔ Photovoltaic
A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which generate
electrical power.
PV installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted. The mount may be fixed, or use a
solar tracker to follow the sun across
Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source: once installed, its operation generates no pollution and no
greenhouse gas emissions
In most photovoltaic applications the solar radiation is sunlight
Average insolation. Note that this is for
and receive more energy per unit area.
➔ Utilization of building water conserving installation
There are a number of strategies that can be employed to reduce the amount of water cons
general terms, these methods include:
● System optimization (i.e., efficient water systems design, leak detection, and repair);
● Water conservation measures; and
● Water reuse/recycling systems.
More specifically, a wide range of technolo
save water and associated energy consumption. These include:
➔ Water-efficient plumbing fixtures (ultra low
sensored sinks, low-flow showerheads, and water
➔ Irrigation and landscaping measures (water
flow sprinkler heads, water
➔ Water recycling or reuse measures (Gray water and process recycling systems), and
➔ Methods to reduce water use in HVAC systems.
➔ Evaporative coolers.
An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air through th
evaporation of water.
Evaporative cooling differs from typical
refrigeration cycles.
Evaporative cooling works by exploiting water's large
be dropped significantly through the
This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration.
In extremely dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air with more
moisture for the comfort of building occupants.
voltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which generate
mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted. The mount may be fixed, or use a
solar tracker to follow the sun across the sky.
In most photovoltaic applications the solar radiation is sunlight
Average insolation. Note that this is for a horizontal surface. Solar panels are normally propped up at an angle
and receive more energy per unit area.
Utilization of building water conserving installation
There are a number of strategies that can be employed to reduce the amount of water cons
general terms, these methods include:
System optimization (i.e., efficient water systems design, leak detection, and repair);
Water conservation measures; and
Water reuse/recycling systems.
More specifically, a wide range of technologies and measures can be employed within each of these strategies to
save water and associated energy consumption. These include:
efficient plumbing fixtures (ultra low-flow toilets and urinals, waterless urinals, low
w showerheads, and water-efficient dishwashers and washing machines)
Irrigation and landscaping measures (water-efficient irrigation systems, irrigation control systems, low
flow sprinkler heads, water-efficient scheduling practices, and Xeriscape)
ecycling or reuse measures (Gray water and process recycling systems), and
Methods to reduce water use in HVAC systems.
An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air through th
Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems, which use vapor-compression
Evaporative cooling works by exploiting water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can
be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evapo
This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration.
moisture for the comfort of building occupants.
voltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which generate
mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted. The mount may be fixed, or use a
a horizontal surface. Solar panels are normally propped up at an angle
There are a number of strategies that can be employed to reduce the amount of water consumed at a facility. In
System optimization (i.e., efficient water systems design, leak detection, and repair);
gies and measures can be employed within each of these strategies to
flow toilets and urinals, waterless urinals, low-flow and
efficient dishwashers and washing machines)
efficient irrigation systems, irrigation control systems, low-
ecycling or reuse measures (Gray water and process recycling systems), and
An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air through the
compression or absorption
. The temperature of dry air can
of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation).

UNIT V HUMAN COMFORT STA
➔ Designing for optimum Day lighting
During the design process, the following design strategies should be understood and explored:
➔ Increase perimeter daylight zones
area.
➔ Allow daylight penetration high in a space. Windows located high in a wall or in roof monitors and
clerestories will result in deeper light penetration and reduce the likelihood of excessive brightness.
➔ Reflect daylight within a space to increase room brightness. A lig
potential to increase room brightness and decrease window brightness.
➔ Slope ceilings to direct more light into a space. Sloping the ceiling away from the fenestration area will
help increase the surface brightness of
➔ Avoid direct beam daylight on critical visual tasks. Poor visibility and discomfort will result if
excessive brightness differences occur in the vicinity of critical visual tasks.
➔ Filter daylight. The harshness of direct
like, and will help distribute light.
➔ Understand that different building orientations will benefit from different daylighting strategies; for
example, light shelves-which are effective on sou
elevations of buildings.
A daylighting system consists of systems, technologies, and architecture. While not all of these components are
required for every daylighting system or design, one or more of the fo
● Daylight-optimized building footprint
● Climate-responsive window
● High-performance glazing
● Daylighting-optimized fenestration design
● Skylights (passive or active)
● Tubular daylight devices
● Daylight redirection devices
● Solar shading devices
● Daylight-responsive electric lighting controls
● Daylight-optimized interior design (such as furniture design, space planning, and room surface
finishes).
An optimized building footprint is a foundational element of a daylit bu
south- and north-facing facade area and minimizing east and especially west exposure allows for the easiest
controllable daylight fenestration. Restricting the floor plate depth (north
much floor area as possible, as there are practical limitations to how far one can transmit daylight in side
lighting applications.
UNIT V HUMAN COMFORT STANDARDS
Designing for optimum Day lighting
Increase perimeter daylight zones-extend the perimeter footprint to maximize the usable daylighting
t penetration high in a space. Windows located high in a wall or in roof monitors and
Reflect daylight within a space to increase room brightness. A light shelf, if properly designed, has the
potential to increase room brightness and decrease window brightness.
Slope ceilings to direct more light into a space. Sloping the ceiling away from the fenestration area will
help increase the surface brightness of the ceiling further into a space.
Avoid direct beam daylight on critical visual tasks. Poor visibility and discomfort will result if
excessive brightness differences occur in the vicinity of critical visual tasks.
Filter daylight. The harshness of direct light can be filtered with vegetation, curtains, louvers, or the
like, and will help distribute light.
Understand that different building orientations will benefit from different daylighting strategies; for
which are effective on south facades-are often ineffective on east or west
required for every daylighting system or design, one or more of the following are typically present:
optimized building footprint
responsive window-to-wall area ratio
optimized fenestration design
Skylights (passive or active)
devices
responsive electric lighting controls
optimized interior design (such as furniture design, space planning, and room surface
An optimized building footprint is a foundational element of a daylit building design. Maximizing the amount of
facing facade area and minimizing east and especially west exposure allows for the easiest
controllable daylight fenestration. Restricting the floor plate depth (north-to-south) also helps to dayligh
extend the perimeter footprint to maximize the usable daylighting
t penetration high in a space. Windows located high in a wall or in roof monitors and
ht shelf, if properly designed, has the
Slope ceilings to direct more light into a space. Sloping the ceiling away from the fenestration area will
Avoid direct beam daylight on critical visual tasks. Poor visibility and discomfort will result if
light can be filtered with vegetation, curtains, louvers, or the
Understand that different building orientations will benefit from different daylighting strategies; for
are often ineffective on east or west
llowing are typically present:
optimized interior design (such as furniture design, space planning, and room surface
ilding design. Maximizing the amount of
facing facade area and minimizing east and especially west exposure allows for the easiest
south) also helps to daylight as

➔ Ventilation
➔ Natural ventilation systems rely on pressure differences to move fresh air through buildings.
➔ Pressure differences can be caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperature differences
or differences in humidity.
➔ In either case, the amount of ventilation will depend critically on the size and placement of openings in
the building.
➔ Openings between rooms such as transom windows, louvers, grills, or open plans are techniques to
complete the airflow circuit through a building.
A. TYPES OF NATURAL VENTILATION EFFECTS
Wind can blow air through openings in the wall on the windward side of the building, and suck air out of
openings on the leeward side and the roof.
Temperature differences between warm air inside and cool air outside can cause the air in the room to rise and
exit at the ceiling or ridge, and enter via lower openings in the wall.
Similarly, buoyancy caused by differences in humidity can allow a pressurized column of dense, evaporatively
cooled air to supply a space, and lighter, warmer, humid air to exhaust near the top.
WIND
Wind causes a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative pressure on the leeward side of buildings.
To equalize pressure, fresh air will enter any windward opening and be exhausted from any leeward opening. In
summer, wind is used to supply as much fresh air as possible while in winter, ventilation is normally reduced to
levels sufficient to remove excess moisture and pollutants.
An expression for the volume of airflow induced by wind is: Qwind = K x A x V, where
Qwind = volume of airflow (m3/h)
A = area of smaller opening (m2)
V = outdoor wind speed (m/h)
K = coefficient of effectiveness
BUOYANCY
1. Buoyancy ventilation may be temperature-induced (stack ventilation) or humidity induced (cool tower).
2. The cool air supply to the space is pressurized by weight of the column of cool air above it.
3. Buoyancy results from the difference in air density. The density of air depends on temperature and
humidity (cool air is heavier than warm air at the same humidity and dry air is heavier than humid air at
the same temperature).
4. Cool tower ventilation is only effective where outdoor humidity is very low.
B. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
➔ Maximize wind-induced ventilation by siting the ridge of a building perpendicular to the summer
winds.
➔ Naturally ventilated buildings should be narrow..
➔ Each room should have two separate supply and exhaust openings.
➔ Window openings should be operable by the occupants.
➔ Provide ridge vents.
➔ Allow for adequate internal airflow.
➔ Consider the use of clerestories or vented skylights..
➔ Provide attic ventilation.
➔ Consider the use of fan-assisted cooling strategies.
➔ Determine if the building will benefit from an open- or closed-building ventilation approach.
➔ Use mechanical cooling in hot, humid climates.
➔ Try to allow natural ventilation to cool the mass of the building at night in hot climates.
➔ Open staircases provide stack effect ventilation, but observe all fire and smoke precautions for enclosed
stairways.

➔ Sick Building Syndrome
INTRODUCTION
The sick building syndrome (SBS) is used to describe a situation in which the occupants of a building
experience acute health- or comfort-related effects that seem to be linked directly to the time spent in the
building.
No specific illness or cause can be identified. The complainants may be localized in a particular room or zone or
may be widespread throughout the building.
Signs and symptoms of the sick building syndrome are as follows
1. Headache, dizziness, nausea, eye, nose or throat irritation, dry cough, dry or itching skin, difficulty in
concentration, fatigue, sensitivity to odours, hoarseness of voice, allergies, cold, flu-like symptoms,
increased incidence of asthma attacks and personality changes.
2. The cause of the symptoms is not known. It reduces work efficiency and increases absenteeism. Most
of the complainants report relief soon after leaving the building, although lingering effects of
neurotoxins can occur.
3. Legionnaire's disease occurs predominantly in the middle aged and elderly adults whereas Pontiac
fever occurs in young healthy adults, and has a very high secondary attack rate.
4. Humidifier fever is caused by breathing in water droplets from humidifiers heavily contaminated with
microorganisms causing respiratory infections, asthma and extrinsic allergic alveolitis.
ETIOLOGY
The following are some of the factors that might be primarily responsible for SBS:
1. Chemical contaminants
1.1.From outdoor sources:
Contaminants from outside like pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust, plumbing vents and building
exhausts (bathrooms and kitchens) can enter the building through poorly located air intake vents,
windows and other openings.
1.2.From indoor sources:
The most common contaminant of indoor air includes the volatile organic compounds (VOC). The
main sources of VOC are adhesives, upholstery, carpeting, copy machines, manufactured wood
products, pesticides, cleaning agents, etc. Environmental tobacco smoke, respirable particulate matter,
combustion byproducts from stove, fireplace and unvented space heater also increase the chemical
contamination.
Synthetic fragrances in personal care products or in cleaning and maintenance products also contribute
to the contamination.
2. Biological contaminants
The biological contaminants include pollen, bacteria, viruses, fungus, molds, etc.
Insect and bird droppings can also be a source of biological contamination. Biological contamination causes
fever, chills, cough, chest tightness, muscle aches and allergic reactions. In offices with a high density of
occupancy, airborne diseases can spread rapidly from one worker to another.
3. Inadequate ventilation
This reduced ventilation rate was found to be inadequate to maintain the health and comfort of building
occupants.
Malfunctioning heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems (HVAC systems) also increase the indoor air
pollution.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) recently revised
ventilation standards to a minimum outdoor air flow rate of 15 cfm/person to avoid the problems related to
inadequate ventilation.
4. Electromagnetic radiation
Gadgets like microwaves, televisions and computers emit electromagnetic radiation, which ionizes the air.
Extensive wiring without proper grounding also creates high magnetic fields, which have been linked to cancer.
5. Psychological factors

Excessive work stress or dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal relationships and poor communication are often seen
to be associated with SBS.
6. Poor and inappropriate lighting with absence of sunlight, bad acoustics, poor ergonomics and humidity may
also contribute to SBS.
INVESTIGATIONS
1. a walk-through inspection to look for sources of contamination, such as photocopiers, insulation and
cleaning materials,
2. measurement of temperature, humidity, air movement and other comfort parameters,
3. measurement of carbon dioxide to assess the ventilation efficiency,
4. measurement of formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, ozone and respirable particles and
5. examination of the ventilation system for causes of poor distribution, including tests for biological
organisms in any water in the system
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
➔ Increase the ventilation rates and air distribution.
➔ The HVAC system should be operated and maintained properly to ensure that the desired ventilation
rates are attained. If there are strong pollutants, the air may need to be directly vented to the outside.
This method is especially recommended to remove pollutants that accumulate in specific areas such as
restrooms, copy rooms and printing facilities. The ASHRAE recommends a minimum of 8.4 air
exchanges per 24 h.
➔ Removal or modification of the pollutant source can be carried out by a routine maintenance of HVAC
systems, replacing water-stained ceiling tiles and carpets, using stone, ceramic or hardwood flooring,
proper waterproofing, avoiding synthetic or treated upholstery fabrics, minimizing the use of electronic
items and unplugging idle devices, venting contaminants to the outside, storing paints, solvents,
pesticides and adhesives in close containers in well-ventilated areas and using these pollutant sources in
periods of low or no occupancy.
➔ Allowing time for building material in new areas to off-gas pollutants before occupancy and smoking
restrictions are some measures that can be used.
➔ Air cleaning can be a useful addition to control air pollution.
➔ Banning of smoking in the workplace or restricting smoking to designated well-ventilated areas away
from the workstations and creating no-smoking zones with the help of laws.
➔ principles of Building biology are as follows:
◆ 1.Site status
The building site should be geologically undisturbed. Residential areas should be away from industrial
centers and main traffic routes and housing should have sufficient green space and should be in
harmony with the surrounding environment.
◆ 2.Construction concepts
Natural, unadulterated and nontoxic building material should be used, walls, floors and ceilings should
not be susceptible to mold or fungi, the basement should be waterproof and well -ventilated, the earth's
natural magnetic field should not be altered or distorted, production, installation and disposal of
building materials should not lead to environmental pollution, building activities should not lead to
exploitation of nonrenewable, rate resources.
◆ 3.Interiors
Lighting and color must mix well with the surroundings and not jar the senses, man-made
electromagnetic radiation must be reduced as much as possible, interiors should be done by using
natural materials without toxic content and should be economically designed, there should be no toxic
out gases or harsh smells, indoor humidity should be naturally regulated, air pollutants should be
filtered and neutralized, thermal insulation should be balanced with heat retention, use of solar heating
should be encouraged, moisture content in new buildings should be low, protective measures against
noise pollution and harmful infrasonic and ultrasound radiation must be ensured.
➔ Indoor Environment and design of Healthy buildings.
Modern buildings are generally considered safe and healthy working environments.

However, the potential for indoor air quality problems, occupational illnesses and injuries, exposure to
hazardous materials, and accidental falls beckons
Architects, engineers, and facility managers to design and maintain buildings and processes that ensure occupant
safety and health.
Protecting the health, safety, and welfare (HSW) of building occupants has expanded beyond disease prevention
and nuisance control to include mental as well as physical health and protecting the ecological health of a place
through the creation of spaces that enable delight and the realization of human potential.
In addition, consideration of HSW issues should be an integral part of all phases of a building's life cycle:
planning, design, construction, operations and maintenance, renovation, and final disposal.
● Provide designs that eliminate or reduce hazards in the workplace to prevent mishaps and reduce
reliance on personal protective equipment.
● Prevent occupational injuries and illnesses.
● Prevent falls from heights.
● Prevent slips, trips, and falls.
● Ensure electrical safety from turn-over through Operations and Maintenance. Modifications must be in
conformance with life safety codes and standards and be documented.
● Eliminate exposure to hazardous materials (e.g., volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
formaldehyde, and lead and asbestos in older buildings).
● Provide good indoor air quality (IAQ) and adequate ventilation.
● Analyze work requirements and provide ergonomic workplaces to prevent work-related
musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD).
● Perform proper building operations and maintenance.
PROVIDE DESIGNS THAT ELIMINATE OR REDUCE HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE TO PREVENT
MISHAPS
● Provide designs in accordance with good practice as well as applicable building, fire, safety, and health
codes and regulations.
● Conduct preliminary hazard analysis and design reviews to eliminate or mitigate hazards in the
workplace.
● Integrate safety mechanisms, such as built-in anchors or tie-off points, into the building design,
especially for large mechanical systems.
● Design a means for safely cleaning and maintaining interior spaces and building exteriors.
PREVENT OCCUPATIONAL INJURIES AND ILLNESSES
● Consider work practices, employee physical requirements, and eliminating confined spaces when
designing buildings and processes.
● Design for safe replacement and modifications of equipment to reduce the risk of injury to operations
and maintenance staff.
● Provide proper ventilation under all circumstances, and allow for natural lighting where possible.
● Mitigate noise hazards from equipment and processes.
● Designate safe locations for installation of RF equipment such as antennas on rooftop penthouses.
PREVENT FALLS FROM HEIGHTS
● Provide guardrails and barriers that will prevent falls from heights in both interior and exterior spaces.
● Provide fall protection for all maintenance personnel especially for roof-mounted equipment such as
HVAC equipment and cooling towers.
● Provide certified tie-off points for fall arrest systems.
PREVENT SLIPS, TRIPS, AND FALLS

● Provide interior and exterior floor surfaces that do not pose slip or trip hazards.
● Select exterior walking surface materials that are not susceptible to changes in elevation as a result of
freeze/thaw cycles.
● Provide adequate illumination, both natural and artificial, for all interior and exterior areas.
ENSURE ELECTRICAL SAFETY
● Provide adequate space for maintenance, repair, and expansion in electrical rooms and closets.
● Consider response of emergency personnel in cases of fires and natural disasters.
● Label all electrical control panels and circuits.
● Install non-conductive flooring at service locations for high voltage equipment.
● Specify high-visibility colors for high voltage ducts and conduits.
ELIMINATE EXPOSURE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
● Identify, isolate, remove, or manage in place hazardous materials such as lead, asbestos, etc.
● Consider use of sampling techniques for hazardous substances in all phases of the project to include
planning, design, construction, and maintenance.
● Consider occupant operations and materials in designing ventilation and drainage systems.
● Provide adequate space for hazardous materials storage compartments and segregate hazardous
materials to avoid incompatibility.
● Substitute high hazardous products with those of lower toxicity/physical properties.
PROVIDE GOOD INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND ADEQUATE VENTILATION
● Design separate ventilation systems for industrial and hazardous areas within a building.
● Specify materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants such as volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).
● Consider the indoor relative humidity in the design of the ventilation system.
● Avoid interior insulation of ductwork.
● Provide air barriers at interior walls between thermally different spaces to prevent mold and mildew.
PROVIDE ERGONOMIC WORKPLACES AND FURNITURE TO PREVENT WORK-RELATED
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (WMSD)
● Select furnishings, chairs, and equipment that are ergonomically designed and approved for that use.
● Design equipment and furnishings reflective of work practices in an effort to eliminate repetitive
motions and vibrations as well as prevent strains and sprains.
● Accept the principle that one size does not fit all employees.
● Consider providing break areas to allow the employees to temporarily leave the workplace.
● Minimize lighting glare on computer monitor screens. Provide task lighting at workstations to
minimize eye fatigue.
PERFORM PROPER BUILDING OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE
● Ensure all maintenance and operation documentation, especially an equipment inventory, is submitted
to the building owner/operator prior to building occupancy.
● Follow manufacturer recommendations for proper building operations and maintenance.
● Include safety training of operator personnel as part of the construction contractor's deliverables.
● Require building maintenance personnel to maintain the HVAC air infiltration devices and condensate
water biocides appropriately.
● Monitor chemical inventories to identify opportunities to substitute green products.

1. Define climate.
Weather tells us the atmospheric conditions around us for a brief amount of time, and it can change
rapidly. The weather can be foggy in the morning, sunny at noon, and rainy in the evening. This doesn't
mean, however, that the climate changed from foggy to sunny and then to rainy over the course of a
day.
Climate is the longstanding average weather of an area. It doesn't describe the weather changes that
happen over the course of days, weeks, or even months. It characterizes a region's general weather
patterns that happen over the course of many years.
Climate is the average weather in a place over many years. While the weather can change in just a few hours,
climate takes hundreds, thousands, even millions of years to change.
2. Differentiate between hot and dry and hot and humid climate?
HOT & DRY CLIMATE
The general characteristics of this climate are as follows:
•hot dry weather hot in summer and cold in winter.
•very little rainfall.
•very low humidity.
•sandy or rocky ground with very low vegetation cover.
•high temp. difference between night and day.
•hot winds & frequent dust storms
•High summer day time temperatures(32-36° C)
•In hotter regions above 40 and up to 50°C.
• High solar radiation
•Clear sky most of the year
THE PAREKH HOUSE - Charles Correa
Mediterrean House
Trulli House, South Italy
Arabic House

Al Bahar - Cool building in Abu Dhabi’s heat
3. State the significance of law in protecting the environment?
We know we depend on a healthy environment. Environmental laws help ensure the environment and the
economy are equally protected and promoted, not just because we need them both, but because each needs the
other.
Truly effective environmental laws make sure, among other things, that companies design projects that cause the
least amount of environmental harm and make the best use of resources.
Laws also make sure these companies are the ones paying the costs of preventing or repairing damage to the
environment, rather than downloading them to taxpayers as clean-up costs or healthcare expenses. In short,
regulation forces companies to take care of the environment as part of the price of doing business.
Effective environmental laws should prevent decision-makers from rushing approvals for projects that could
hurt our communities, our environment and our economy in the long-term – not the opposite. We depend on
governments to use laws and other tools to protect our health, the environment and the economy.
Whether it’s monitoring toxic contamination, preventing oil spills, sustaining fisheries’ resources, creating
national parks, or protecting ecosystems and species from extinction, the government is elected to use its power
and laws to promote healthy environments, people and economies.
4. Differentiate between micro and macro thermal comfort scales?
Macro and Micro Climate
· Macro-climate the climate of a larger area such as a region or a country
· Micro-climate the variations in localised climate around a building
Macro Climate
The macro climate around a building cannot be affected by any design changes; however the building design can
be developed with knowledge of the macro climate in which the building is located.
General climatic data give an idea of the local climatic severity:
· Seasonal accumulated temperature difference (degree day) are a measure of the outside air temperature, though
do not account for available solar
· Typical wind speeds and direction
· Annual totals of Global Horizontal Solar Radiation
· The driving rain index (DRI) relates to the amount of moisture contained in exposed surfaces and will affect
thermal conductivity of external surfaces.
Micro-Climate
The site of a building may have a many micro climates caused by the presence of hills valleys, slopes, streams and
other buildings.
Factors Affecting Micro Climate
Outside Designers Control Within Designer’s Remit
Area and local climate Spacing and orientation of buildings
Site surroundings Location of open spaces
Site shape Form and height of buildings
Topographic features Fenestration
Surrounding Buildings Tree cover
Ground profiling
Wind breaks
Surrounding surfaces (paving grass etc)

5. Suggest a way in which fenestration can be modified to control indoor temperature?
INTRODUCTION
There are many different reasons to want to control the amount of sunlight that is admitted into a building.
In warm, sunny climates excess solar gain may result in high cooling energy consumption;
in cold and temperate climates winter sun entering south-facing windows can positively contribute to passive
solar heating;
and in nearly all climates controlling and diffusing natural illumination will improve day lighting.
Well-designed sun control and shading devices can dramatically reduce building peak heat gain and cooling
requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of building interiors.
Depending on the amount and location of fenestration, reductions in annual cooling energy consumption of 5%
to 15% have been reported. Sun control and shading devices can also improve user visual comfort by controlling
glare and reducing contrast ratios.
Fenestrations are basically the required transparency on a façade to attach ourselves with the external
environment or the exterior world. They play a dual role of bringing the out in and the in out. The process has a
similar function but a lot many ways to bring this process in action.
These fenestrations serve well to create an ambience with variety of light and shadow inside as well as serve an
impactful elevation to the façade. The decision for the design and selection of the windows is not based on the
only aspect of they providing light or they creating ambience, it is also based on how well they respond to the
surroundings as well as how efficient they are to the environment around.
TYPES OF FENESTRATION:
These play an important role in forming the base for the openings along with providing a large scope for
custom design development on every individual style.
SLIT WINDOWS:
JALIS OR PERFORATED WINDOWS:
GLAZED OPENABLE WINDOWS:
FRENCH WINDOWS
FOLDING WINDOWS
TYPES OF GLAZING:
DOUBLE GLAZED GLASS
TRIPLE GLAZED GLASS
LOW – E GLASS
NEED AND ROLE OF FENESTRATIONS:
Thus, fenestrations play an important role in maintaining the solid void ratio of the building along with making
the building porous enough to breathe and reduce its carbon footprint on the surrounding environment. In this
way fenestrations serve as a boon for light, ventilation and also scenic panoramic views from the structure along
with creating an impact on the end user viewing it through the exterior or just passing by.

6. Write a short note on wind tower?
A wind catcher is an architectural device used for many centuries to create natural ventilation in buildings.
The function of this tower is to catch cooler breeze that prevail at a higher level above the ground and to direct it
into the interior of the buildings. It is not known who first invented the wind catcher, although some claim it
originated in Iran and it can be seen in.
Wind catchers come in various designs, such as the uni-directional, bi-directional, and multi-directional.
7. Define U value
A measure of the heat transmission through a building part (such as a wall or window) or a given thickness of a
material (such as insulation) with lower numbers indicating better insulating properties
R-VALUE: a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (such
as insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties
U-value, or thermal transmittance (reciprocal of R-value)
Thermal transmittance, also known as U-value, is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure (which can be a
single material or a composite), divided by the difference in temperature across that structure.
The units of measurement are W/m²K.
The better-insulated a structure is, the lower the U-value will be.
R-value, or thermal insulance (reciprocal of U-value)
Thermal insulance is the converse of thermal transmittance; in other words, the ability of a material to resist heat
flow.
The units of measurement for thermal transmittance are m²K/W and, again, a higher figure indicates better
performance (in contrast to the lower figure desired for U-value).
8. State a few materials that can be used for roof in hot and dry climates?
Traditionally constructed with thick walls and roofs and with very small openings Sun-dried earth brick
is one of the poorest conductors of heat Building material
Adobe is a great option that has been used for as long as humans have been constructing
dwellings, specifically for its thermal properties. It’s incredibly environmentally friendly, but
will also keep the heat out, and retain heat in the winter or the cold nights often found in those
climates.
9. Brief about sick building syndrome.
Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a medical condition where people in a building suffer from
symptoms of illness or feel unwell for no apparent reason.
Sick building syndrome describes what happens when a combination of indoor air toxins and lack of
ventilation meet the human respiratory system. Because the list of pollutants is so many, and their
effects so varied, sick building syndrome has a multitude of symptoms and can rear its head in many
ways.
Indoor Pollution Sources
1. Synthetic Insulation

2. Poor Air Circulation
3. Lack of Fresh Air
4. Smoke
5. Paint Fumes
6. Dust mites
7. Synthetic Carpet Out gassing
8. Pet Dander
9. Toxic Household Cleaners
10. Natural Gas/CO2
11. Construction Materials
12. Bacteria From Toilet Bowl
13. Mold & Mildew
14. Lead or Toxic Paint
15. Carbon Monoxide
16. Oil & Gas Fumes
10. What are the objectives of sustainable buildings?
WHAT IS GREEN BUILDING??
“ Green or sustainable building is the practice of producing healthier and more resource-effective examples of
construction, restoration, operation, maintenance, and demolition.”
OBJECTIVES OF GREEN BUILDING
Green Buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact on human health and the natural environment by the
following ways:
 Optimize Site Potential
 Optimize Energy Use
 Protect and Conserve Water
 Optimize Building Space and Material Use
 Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
 Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
11. Design Of optimum daylight.
“It’s an integrated design concept that involves the whole building and factors in climate, the building’s
orientation, how the floor plan is laid out, and interior lighting design and controls.”
2. Don’t waste money on daylighting features if you don’t control artificial lighting first.
3. Position lighting for maximum effectiveness.
4. Use tall windows to maximize light penetration.
5. Eliminate glazing below sill height.
6. Focus on “effective aperture.”
7. Make sure the building program relates to natural daylighting.
8. Calculate daylighting depth.
9. Address light shelf design.
10. Account for climate and geography.
11. Use appropriate materials and colors to finish spaces.
12. Take into account the payback period of daylighting components.
13. Focus on new construction.
It has these characteristics:
 Early enough for integrated design
 An unobstructed site in the mid-latitudes with a clear climate
 Primarily used for daytime occupancy—an office or a school, for example
 Planned using whole-building energy modelling
 Expansive north- and south-facing façades

 Open plan program or glazed interior wall partitions
 Atriums, courtyards, or light wells
 High ceilings
 Dimmable artificial lighting controls available for critical spaces
 Task illumination required
 Blinds, drapes, or shades to be used for glare control
12. Ventilation and thermal comfort standards.
Air movement has a big say.
Here is a relation between subjective reactions to various velocities
< 0.25 m/s unnoticed
0.25-0.50 pleasant
0.50-1.00 awareness of air movement
1.00-1.50 draughty
> 1.50 annoyingly draughty
13. Passive strategies of thermal comfort.
Passive design strategies use ambient energy sources instead of purchased energy like electricity or
natural gas. These strategies include day lighting, natural ventilation, and solar energy.
14. Stack effect.
Stack effect or chimney effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys, resulting
from air buoyancy.
In winter, warm air inside a building rises. This pressurizes the top of the building, pushing hot air out and
sucking cold air in at the bottom. In summer in an air-conditioned building, stack effect works in reverse
because the warmer air is outside the house. Cool inside air tends to fall and get pushed out at the bottom of the
building, which draws hot air in at the top.
Stack effect is controlled by two things: the height of the building and the difference between inside and outside
temperatures. The greater the temperature difference and the taller the building, the greater the pressures created.

sem 2 thermal comfort and passive design

sem 2 thermal comfort and passive design

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to sem 2 thermal comfort and passive design

Similar to sem 2 thermal comfort and passive design (20)

More from Samanth kumar

More from Samanth kumar (12)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

sem 2 thermal comfort and passive design