1.
Strain improvement ofindustrially importantmicroorganismsPresented byRekha SharmaM.Sc MicrobiologyPunjab Agricultural Universit

2.
Strain ImprovementThe Science and technology ofmanipulating and improving microbialstrains, in order to enhance theirmetabolic capacities forbiotechnological applications, arereferred to as strain improvement.

3.
Targets of strain improvement Rapid growth Genetic stability Non-toxicity to humans Large cell size, for easy removal from the culture fluid Ability to use cheaper substrates Elimination of the production of compounds that may interfere withdownstream processing Increase productivity. To improve the use of carbon and nitrogen sources. Reduction of cultivation cost-lower price in nutrition.-lower requirement for oxygen. Production of-additional enzymes.-compounds to inhibit contaminant microorganisms.

4.
Optimization of microbial activityIt can be done by Optimizing environmental conditions Optimizing nutrition of microorganisms Other includes1. Method not involving foregin DNA—Mutagenesis2.Method involving ForeignDNA(recombination)TransductionConjugation ProtoplastfusionTransformationGeneticengineering

5.
Optimizing environmentconditions Modification of physical parameter(temperature,agitation,etc) Modification of chemical parameter (pH,O2concentration) Modification of biological parameter (enzymes )

6.
Optimization of nutrition of microorganisms Carbon sources Nitrogen sources Mineral sources and other sources Precursor Enzymes

7.
Proper strain used in IndustryGenetically regarded as safeGRASBacteria – Bacillus subtilis– Lactobacillusbulgaricus– Lactococcus lactis– Leuconostoc oenosYeasts – Candida utilis– Kluyveromycesmarxianus– Kluyveromyces lactis– Saccharomycescerevisiae•Filamentous fungi– Aspergillus niger– Aspergillus oryzae– Mucor javanicus– Penicillium roqueforti

8.
1. MUTAGENESIS Mutagenesis is a process of treatment given tomicroorganism which will cause an improvement in theirgenotypic and phenotypic performances.MutagenesisSpontaneousmutationDirect mutation(addition,deletion,substitution,point)InducedmutationSite directedmutation

9.
Types of mutation1.Spontaneous mutation: Occur spontaneously at the rate of 10-10 and 10-15per generation.2. Induced mutation: The rate of mutation can be increased by variousfactors and agents called mutagens. ionizing radiations (e.g. X-rays, gamma rays) non-ionizing radiations (e.g. ultraviolet radiations) various chemicals (e.g. mustard gas, benzene,ethidium bromide, Nitroso guanidine-NTG)

10.
MUTAGEN MUTATIONINDUCEDIMPACT ONDNARELATIVEEFFECTIonizingRadiations-XRays,gammaraysSingle or doublestrand bearkageof DNADeletion/structural changeshighUVrays,chemicalsPyrimidinedymerisationTrnsversion,deletion,frameshifttransitions fromGC ATMediumHydroxylamine(NH2OHDeamination ofcytosineGC A TtransitionslowN-Methyl –N’-Nitro N-NitrosoguanidineMethylation ofbases and highpHGC ATtransitionshighNitrousacid(HNO2)Deamination ofA,C & GBidirectionaltransitions,deletion,AT GC/GCATMediumPhage,plasmid,DNA transposingBasesubstitution,breakage.Deletion,duplication,insertion.high

11.
Choice of mutagen Mutagenic agents are numerous but notnecessarily equally effective in allorganisms. Other factors--(a)the safety of the mutagen.(b)simplicity of technique.(c)ready availability of the necessaryequipment and chemicals.

12.
 Among physical agents, UV is to bepreferred since it does not require muchequipment, and is relatively effective andhas been widely used in industry. Chemical methods other than NTG(nitrosoguanidine) are probably best used incombination with UV. The disadvantage of UV is that it isabsorbed by glass; it is also not effective inopaque or colored organisms.

13.
3.Direct mutations

14.
3. Site directed mutations(SDM)-- Change in the base sequence of DNA changing the codon in the gene coding for that amino acid. It has helped to raise the industrial production of enzymes,as well as to produce specific enzymes

15.
Isolate required enzyme gene, e.g. via mRNA and its conversion into cDNA.Sequence the DNA of the gene (in order to decide on change required for primerin stage 5).Splice gene into M13 vector dsDNA and transduce E. coli host cells.Isolate ssDNA in phage particles released from host cells.Synthesize an oligonucleotide primer with the same sequence as part of the genebut with altered codon (mismatch/mispair) at desired point(s).For example, one of the codons in DNA coding for the amino acid Alanine isCGG. If the middle base is changed by SDM from G to C the codon sequencebecomes CCG which codes for a different amino acid (Glycine).

16.
Cont..Mix oligonucleotide with recombinant vector ssDNA.Carried out at low temperature (0-10oC) and in high salt concentrationto allow hybridization between oligonucleotide and part of gene.Use DNA polymerase to synthesize remainder of strand.(Oligonucleotide acts as a primer for the DNA synthesis). Then addligase to join primer and new stranddsDNA molecule.Transform E. coli cells and allow them to replicate recombinantvector molecule.DNA replication is semi-conservative, therefore two types of cloneare produced each of which excretes phage particles containingssDNA: Type 1: contain the wild-type gene (i.e. unaltered) Type 2: contain the mutated gene!!!

17.
Reports on strain improvementby mutation- Karana and Medicherla (2006)- lipase fromAspergillus japonicus MTCC 1975- mutation usingUV, HNO2, NTG showed 127%, 177%, 276% higherlipase yield than parent strain respectively. Sandana Mala et al., 2001- lipase from A. niger -Nitrous acid induced mutation – showed 2.53 timeshigher activity. Medically useful products Demethyltetracyclineand doxorubicin were discovered by mutations fromtetracycline and daunorubicin( Shir etal,1969).Hybramycines were also made by this way. First superior penicillin producing mutant,Penicilliumchrysogenum X-1612,was isolated after X ray

18.
Random Screening After inducing the mutations ,survivors from thepopulation are randomly picked and tested for theirability to produce the metabolite of interest. A very large number of colonies must be tested Advantage-over genetic engineering ,with minimal startup timeand sustaining for years. Disadvantage-Non-targeted and non-specific.

19.
Rational ScreeningRational screening requires some basic understanding ofproduct metabolism and pathway regulation which givesinformation about metabolic check points and suggestways to isolate mutants with specific traits. Environmental cnditions i.e. pH,temp,aeration can bemanipulated or chemicals can be incorporated in theculture media to select mutants with desired traits.Applications - Selection of mutants resistant to the antibioticproduced Selection of morphological variants Reversion of nonproducing mutants Selective detoxification Selection of overproducers of a biosyntheticprecursor

20.
T h r e e s t a g e s b e f o r ea m u t a n t c a n c o m ei n t o u s e :(i) Exposing organisms to the mutagen: The organism undergoing mutation should be in the haploid stageduring the exposure. Bacterial cells are haploid; in fungi and actinomycetes the haploidstage is found in the spores. The use of haploid is essential because many mutant genes arerecessive in comparison to the parent or wild-type gene.

21.
Selection for mutants: Following exposure to the mutagen the cells should be suitablydiluted and plated out to yield 50 – 100 colonies per plate. The selection of mutants is greatly facilitated by relying on themorphology of the mutants or on some selectivity in themedium. When morphological mutants are selected, it is in the hope thatthe desired mutation is pleotropic (i.e., a mutation in whichchange in one property is linked with a mutation in anothercharacter). . The classic example of a pleotropic mutation is to be seen inthe development of penicillin-yielding strains of Penicilliumchrysogenum. After irradiation, strains of Penicillium chrysogenum with smallercolonies and which also sporulated poorly, were betterproducers of penicillin.

22.
 Similar increases of metabolite production associatedwith a morphological change have been observed inorganisms producing other antibiotics: cycloheximide,nystatin and tetracyclines. It is desired to select for mutants able to stand ahigher concentration of alcohol, an antibiotic, or someother chemical substance, then the desired level of thematerial is added to the medium on which theorganisms are plated. Only mutants able to survive thehigher concentration will develop Most efficient method is to grow them on selectivemedia, which contain increasing concentrations ofpollutant. Most of bacteria might well grow on 1-2%

23.
 The concentration of the toxic pollutant could begradually increased in the growth medium thusselecting the most resistant ones. This method iscalled acclimatization.Screening of mutant: Screening must be carefully carried out withstatistically organized experimentation to enableone to accept with confidence any apparentimprovement in a producing organism. better Use in industrial practice where time isimportant to carry out as soon as possible aseries of mutations using ultraviolet, and a

24.
2.Transduction- Transduction is the transfer of bacterial DNA from one bacterialcell to another by means of a bacteriophage. Two types: general transduction and specialized transduction. In general transduction, host DNA from any part of the host’sgenetic apparatus is integrated into the virus DNA. In specialized transduction, which occurs only in sometemperate phages, DNA from a specific region of the host DNA isintegrated into the viral DNA and replaces some of the virus’genes. The method is a well-established research tool in bacteriaincluding actinomycetes but prospects for its use in fungi appearlimited.

25.
3.Transformation When foreign DNA isabsorbed by, andintegrates with thegenome of, the donorcell. Cells in whichtransformation canoccur are ‘competent’cells.

26.
In some cases competence is artificiallyinduced by treatment with a calcium salt.The method has also been used toincrease the level of protease andamylase production in Bacillus spp.The method therefore has good industrialpotential.

27.
4.Conjugation-- Conjugation involvescell to cell contact orthrough sex pili(singular, pilus) andthe transfer ofplasmids. The donor strain’splasmid mustpossess a sex factoras a prerequisite forconjugation; onlydonor cells producepili. The sex factor mayon occasion transferpart of the hosts’DNA.

28.
5.PROTOPLAST FUSION Protoplasts are formed from bacteria, fungi, yeastsand actinomycetes when dividing cells are causedto lose their cell walls. Fusion from mixed populations of protoplasts isgreatly enhanced by the use of polyethylene glycol(PEG). The method has great industrial potential andexperimentally has been used to achieve higheryields of antibiotics through fusion with protoplastsfrom different fungi. Protoplast fusion has been demonstrated as anefficient way to induce hetero-karyon formation andrecombination with high frequency (Anne and

29.
 Protoplast fusion has been successfully donewithBacillus subtilis and B. megaterium (Fodor andAlfoldi, 1976) among several species ofStreptomyces spp. Like S. coeli-color, S.acrimycini, S. olividans, S. pravulies(Hopwood et al., 1977) between the fungiGeotrichum and Aspergillus (Ferenczy et al,1974) and Yeasts (Sipiczki and Ferenczy, 1977)

30.
Reports on strain improvementby protoplast fusion Kim et al., 1998 did a comparative study on strainimprovement of Aspergillus oryzae for proteaseproduction by both mutation and protoplast fusion.--UV radiation – 14 times higher yield.--Ethyl methane sulphonate – 39 times higher yield.--Protoplast fusion – using PEG and CaCl2 – 82 timeshigher yield. An intergeneric hybrid was obtained fromAspergillus niger and Penicillium digitatum forenhancing the production of verbenol,a highlyvalued food flavorant (Rao et al, 2003)

31.
6.Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering, also known as recombinantDNA technology, molecular cloning or gene cloning. Recombinant DNA Technology enables isolation ofgenes from an organism, this gene can be amplified,studied, altered & put into another organism Recombinant DNA procedure:i. Cutting of donor DNA : Restrictionendonucleases cut DNA molecule at specific sitesand desired fragment is isolated by gelelectrophoresis.ii. Cloning of a gene : DNA fragment, whichwanted to be cloned, is joined to one of vectors(plasmid, phage, cosmid). For this purpose, vectorand donor DNA are first cleaved with the samerestriction endonuclease, or with the ones producingthe same ends

32.
 Then by using DNA ligase, DNA fragment and vectorDNA is joined. If fragment has no sticky ends,homopolymer tailing or linker DNA segments can beapplied for this step.iii. Transformation : Recombinant vector is put intosuitable host organism, like; bacteria, yeast, plant oranimal cells, by several physical or chemicalmethods. Transformed cells are identified by severalways:a. Insertional inactivation (of antibiotic resistantgenes on plasmids),b. nucleic acid hybridizationc. labeled Abs for specific proteins (immunologicaltest) are helpful for screening recombinant colonies.

33.
Insertional inactivation-

34.
b. Nucleic acid hybridization Probe is nucleic acid sequence of the geneof interest, can be whole or partialsequence, can be RNA or DNA If nucleic acid sequence of interested gene isknown, synthetic probes can be designedeasily, also amino acid sequence is used forprobe preparation.

35.
VECTORSa.) Phages• small, circular, dispensable genetic elements, foundin most prokaryotic and some eukaryotic species.• have replication origin and can replicateautonomously in the host cell.• can be beneficial to host cell, since it can providedrug or heavy metal resistance or produce sometoxic proteins.• artificial plasmids can be constructed with usefulcharacteristics of natural plasmids for the purpose ofcloning

36.
Characterstics of artificial plasmids high copy number, non-conjugative, carry at least two selection markers (one of themcarry restriction site for enzyme), have more than one unique restriction site, accomodate large DNA fragment

37.
pBR322 is one of the most widely used vector . Itcarries two antibiotic resistance genes: ampicillin andtetracycline. If foreign DNA is inserted into one of therestriction sites in the resistance genes, it inactivatesone of the markers. This can be used for selection ofrecombinants.

38.
b. Phages viruses of bacteria consist of a molecule of DNA or RNA andprotein coat. bind to receptors on bacteria and transfergenetic material into the cell for reproduction. can enter a lytic cycle which leads to lysis ofhost cell and release of mature phage particlesor they can be integrated into hostchromosome as prophage and maintained(lysogeny).

39.
 Phage lambda has double stranded DNA, around 48.5kbp,. There contain single stranded, 5 projections ateach end, called as cos sites. These are complementaryin sequence. When it is injected into host cell, phageDNA circularize by means of these sequences. By mixing purified phage heads, tails andbacteriophage lambda DNA, infective particles can beproduced in reaction tube, this is called as in vitropackaging. During packaging, DNA sequences betweentwo cos sites are packed into phage heads.

40.
c. Cosmids-- are artificial vectors prepared by DNA segmentsfrom plasmids and phages. replicate in the host cell like plasmids at a highcopy number. like phage vectors, contain cos sequences, in vitropackaging is possible. transformation efficiency is higher than plasmidvectors since transformation occurs by infection. carry a selectable genetic marker and cloning sites. ~40 kb fragments can be inserted between cossites

41.
A cosmid clonning system

42.
Novel genetic technologiesNovel genetictech.MetabolicengineeringGenome shuffling

43.
Metabolic engineering- The existing pathways are modified, or entirely newones introduced through the manipulation of thegenes so as to improve the yields of the microbialproduct, eliminate or reduce undesirable sideproducts or shift to the production of an entirelynew product. It has been used to overproduce the amino acidisoluecine in Corynebacterium glutamicum, & ethanol by E. coli and has been employed tointroduce the gene for utilizing lactose intoCorynebacterium glutamicum thus making itpossible for the organism to utilize whey which isplentiful and cheap.

44.
Product Modification by Metabolic Engineering include thenew enzymes which modifies the product of existingbiosynthetic pathwaye.g.conversion of Cephalosporin C into 7-aminocephalosporanic acid by D amino acid oxidase( in A.chrysogenum)Completely new metabolite formation include in which all thegenes of a new pathway are transferrede.g E.coli ,transfer of two genes for Polyhydroxybutyratesynthesis from Alcaligenes eutrophus.Enhance growth include enhanced substrate utilizatione.g E.coli ;glutamate dehyrogenase into M.methylotrophus;carbon conversion increased from 4% to 7%

45.
The Strain of E.coli has been engineeried for the productionof lycopene(Farmer and Liao,2000;Alper et al,2005) aminoacids (Lee et al,2007;Park et al,2007) and alcohols( Atsumiet al,2008)through metabolic engineering methods.The improvement of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for theproduction of ethanol by metabolic engineering method(Nissen et al,2000;Alper et al,2006;Bro et al,2006)Genome Shuffling– is a novel tech for strain improvementallow for recombination between multiple parents ateach generation and several rounds of reccursivegenome fusion were carried out resulting in the finalimproved strain involving genetic trait from multipleinitial strains.

46.
Genome shuffling--

47.
 Biochemically products such as astaxanthin (Zheng andZhao,2008), ethanol(Gong et al,2008;Shi et al,2009) andbioinsectisides (Jin et al,2009) were successful inimproving the yield by genomic shuffling. Used to increase acid and glucose tolerance inLactobaccilus(Patnaik et al ,2002;Wang et al, 2007;Johnet al,2008), improve acetic acid tolerance in Candidakrusei(Wei et al,2008), enhance Pristinaamycintolerance in Streptomyces pristinaespiralis(Xu etal,2008),improve thermotolerance and ethanol tolerancein S.cerevisiae (Shi et al,2009)

48.
CONCLUSION- These steps have been taken by firms in order to gap the bridge betweenbasic knowledge and industrial application. The task of both discovering new microbial compounds and improving thesynthesis of known ones have become more and more challenging. The tremendous increase in fermentation productivity and resultingdecreases in costs have come about mainly by using mutagenesis. Inrecent years,recombinant DNA technology has also been applied. The promise of the future is via extenive se of new genetic techniques-Metabolic engineeringGenomic shuffling The choice of approaches which should be taken will be driven by theeconomics of the biotechnological process and the genetic tools availablefor the strain of interest.