3. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
(1845-1923)
German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen who discovered
these on November 8, 1895, who usually is credited as its
discoverer, and who named it X-radiation to signify an
unknown type of radiation.
4. The first x-ray
photograph:
Roentgen’s wife
Bertha’s hand
5. Basic x-ray physics :-
X-rays: a form of electromagnetic
energy
Travel at the speed of light
Electromagnetic spectrum
Gamma Rays
X-rays
Ultraviolet
Visible light
Infrared light
Microwaves
Radio waves
Radar
6.
7. Continuous Spectrum
X-rays are produced whenever matter is irradiated
with a beam of high-energy charged particles or
photons
In an x-ray tube, the interactions are between the
electrons and the target. Since energy must be
conserved, the energy loss from the interaction
results in the release of x-ray photons
The energy (wavelength) will be equal to the energy
loss (Equation 4).
This process generates a broad band of continuous
radiation (a.k.a. bremsstrahlung or white radiation)
8. Continuous Spectrum
The minimum wavelength (
in angstroms) is dependent
on the accelerating potential
( in KV) of the electrons, by
the equation above.
The continuum reaches a
maximum intensity at a
wavelength of about 1.5 to 2
times the min as indicated
by the shape of the curve
VV
hc 398.12
min
9. Generating Characteristic Radiation
The photoelectric effect is
responsible for generation of
characteristic x-rays. Qualitatively
here’s what is happening:
An incoming high-energy
photoelectron disloges a k-shell
electron in the target, leaving a
vacancy in the shell
An outer shell electron then
“jumps” to fill the vacancy
A characteristic x-ray (equivalent
to the energy change in the
“jump”) is generated
L-shell to K-shell jump produces
a K x-ray
M-shell to K-shell jump produces
a K x-ray
13. -: X-RAY TUBE :-
Made of thin Pyrex glass or
metal enclosure to withstand
high heat load and minimize
x-ray absorption
Is gas evacuated
So electrons won’t collide
with the air molecules in the
tube
The X-Ray tube is the single
most important component of
the radiographic system. It is
the part that produces the X-
rays
16. X-ray tube construction
May have two filaments for a large
and small focal spot
When heated, boils off electrons
Made of Thoriated Tungsten
High thermionic emission
High melting point (3410OC for
those fact lovers)
Not likely to burn out like a light
bulb
Thorium enhances thermionic
emission and prolongs tube life
Electron Sources
(Cathode)
X-Ray filament
17. Protective housing :-
Made of lead & steel
When x-rays are
produced, they are
emitted isotropically,
Equal intensity in all
directions
We only use x-rays
emitted through the
window or port Called
the useful or primary
beam
18.
19. Protective housing :-
X-rays that escape through the protective housing
are leakage radiation
Provides mechanical support for the tube and
protects from rough handling
Some tubes contain oil that serves as an insulator
against electric shock and as a thermal cushion
Dissipate heat
Some protective housing has cooling fan to air-
cool the tube and oil
20. Internal components Cathode
Discovery of cathode rays by Sir Willium Crooke
The negative side of the tube and has two primary parts
a filament and focusing cup
Filament = a coil of wire about 2mm in diameter and 1 or
2 cm long.
22. Tungsten :-
Filaments are usually
made of tungsten
Tungsten provides higher
thermionic emission than
other metals
Tungsten has a very high
melting point
Suitable mechanical
properties for construction
purpose
Allso known as Diamond
of x-ray
23. Filament :-
When current (mA) is
applied to the coil of wire
electron are ejected the
outer-shell electrons of
the filament atom are
“boiled off”. This is
known as Thermionic
Emission or Edison
Effect.
24. Focusing cup :-
The filament is embedded in a metal cup that has a
negative charge
Boiled off e- tend to spread out due to electrostatic
repulsion. The focusing cup confines the e- cloud to a
small area
25.
26. Filament Current :-
When the x-ray imaging
system is first turned on,
a low current passes
through the filament to
warm it and prepare it
for the thermal jolt
necessary for x-ray
production
The current is not
enough to energize the
tube, just warm the wire
of the filament
27. Space-charge effect :-
The cloud of e- = space charge
As the space charge becomes
more negative by the boiling off
of more electrons it makes it
difficult for more e- to be emitted
Electrostatic repulsion
Space-charge effect
Space-charge limiting at low
kVp & high mA
28.
29. Dual-focus tubes :-
Most diagnostic tubes
have two focal spots;
large & small
Large is used when large
body parts are imaged
Small is used when better
spatial resolution is
desired – better detail
Filament size
30.
31. Anode :-
Anode is the positive side
of the x-ray tube
The anode conducts
electricity, radiates heat
and contains the target,
Diameter 7.5 - 12.5 cm
Two types of anodes
Stationary & Rotating
32. Stationary Anode :-
Used for dental x-rays,
some portable imaging
Target is button of
tungsten set in block of
copper
Used when high tube
current and power are not
required because they are
not capable of producing
high-intensity x-ray beams
in a short time
35. Rotating Anode :-
Tungsten mixed with 5-6%
rhenium, molybdenum is
used as the base material
Is powered by an induction
motor
The stator is on the outside
of the glass, consist of a
series of electromagnets
The rotor is a shaft made of
bars of copper and soft iron
built into one mass
39. Reason for choosing tungsten as
filament :-
It is capable of stable
electron emission at high
temperature.
It has high melting point.
It has mechanical
strength, long life, and
can be easily drawn out
into a fine filament.
The remnant gas atom
can be removed with
relative ease.
40. Electromagnetic Induction Motor :-
Anode speed 3,000-9000
rpm (revolutions per minute)
The anode is driven by an
electromagnetic induction
motor.
The induction motor consists
of two principle art
1. Stator
2. Rotor
Anode Cooling Chart
Heat Units (HU)
41.
42. Electromagnetic induction :-
As current is applied to
the stator sequentially so
the magnetic field rotates
on the axis of the stator
This magnetic field
interacts with the metal
(ferromagnetic rotor)
causing it to rotate in
unison with the magnetic
field of the stator
43. Dead-man switch :-
Rotor/Prep – applies
current (mA) to the tube
Allows rotor to accelerate
to its designed RPM.
Rotor stops about 1 min
after exposure
Filament current is
increased to create e-
cloud
Exposure – applies voltage
(kV) to make exposure
44. Focal spot :-
The area of the anode’s target
where x-rays are emitted
The smaller the focal spot the
better the resolution of the
resultant image
Unfortunately, as the size of
the focal spot decreases, the
heat of the target is
concentrated into a smaller
area
This is the limiting factor to
focal spot size
45.
46. Line-focus principle :-
By angling the target, the effective area of the target is
much smaller than the actual area of electron interaction
Effective
Focal
Spot
The anode angle q determines the effective focal spot
size:
The angle q also determines the X-ray field size
coverage. For small angles the X-ray field extension is
limited due to absorption and attenuation effects of X-ray
photons parallel to the anode surface.
effective focal length = focal length • sinq
48. Target angle :-
The smaller the target angle the
smaller the effective focal spot
The inclination of target face is
usually 17 degrees
Angles from 5 degrees to
20degrees
Biangular targets are available
that produce two focal spot sizes
49. Anode Heel Effect :-
Because of the use of line-focus principle the
consequence is that the radiation intensity on the
cathode side of the x-ray field is higher than that on
the anode side
Because the e- on the anode side must travel
further than the e- that are close to the cathode side
of the target, the anode side x-rays have slightly
lower energy than the cathode side x-rays
50. The smaller the anode
angle, the larger the
heel affect
Better use anode heal
effect for AP view of
thoracic spine x-ray
Anode Heel Effect :-
51. Extra focal Radiation :-
X-ray tubes are designed so that
the projectile e- interacts with the
target. However, some of the e-
bounce off the target and land on
other areas
This caused x-rays to be
produced out side the focal spot
These rays can also be called
off-focus radiation
Extra focal radiation is
undesirable because it extends
the size of the focal spot,
increases patient skin dose &
reduces image contrast
52.
53. Fixed diaphragm in the tube
housing :-
Using a grid
does not reduce
extra focal
radiation
54.
55. The Control Console :-
The control console
is device that allows
the technologist to
set technical factors
(mAs & kVp) and to
make an exposure.
Only a legally
licensed individual is
authorized to
energize the console.
57. Kilovoltage Peak :-
kVp
kVp= controls contrast (differences from black to white)
One kilovolt is = to 1000 volts
The amount of voltage selected for the x-ray tube
Range 45 to 120 kVp (diagnostic range)
kVp controls contrast
Determine the energy of electron
Higher kVp then higher energy of x-ray
kVp is direct proportional of velocity of electron
220Volts incoming – up to 120,000 volts (120kVp) to anode
side of x-ray tube
58. Milliampere :-
mAs
One milliampere is equal to one thousandth of an
ampere.
The amount of current supplied to the x-ray tube
Range 10 to 1200 mA
Time :-
In seconds
How long x-rays will be produced
0.001 to 6 seconds
59. Milliampere seconds :-
mAs
mAs – density (Amount of black on the film)
Greater mAs, more then electron produce
mAs is direct proportional of current
Voltage current is reduced to milliamps to the filament
(cathode) side of the tube.
mA X s = mAs
60. How do x-rays passing through the body
create an image?
X-rays that pass through the body render the image dark
(black)
X-rays that are totally blocked render the image light
(white)
Air = low atomic # = x-rays get through = image is dark
(black)
Metal = high atomic # = x-rays blocked = image is light
(white)
61. 5 Basic Radiographic Densities
Air
Fat
Soft tissue/fluid
Mineral
Metal
62. Radiographic Analysis
Any structure, normal or pathologic, should be
analyzed for:
1. Size
2. Shape and contour
3. Position
4. Density (You must know the 5 basic densities)
64. Operating Console
All consoles have the same basic controls:
On/Off Switch
Kilovoltage control
Milliampere control
Length of exposure/timer
Focal Spot Size
Automatic Exposure Control
Selection of appropriate chamber
Density Controls
These are examples of manual
exposure controls. Anything not
performed with AEC is considered
a manual exposure. Your distal
extremities are manual exposure!
66. Automatic Exposure Control (AEC)
Automatic Exposure Control is an automatic time that
detects the amount of radiation passing through the patient
and terminates the exposure after a appropriate amount of
time
Minimum reaction (response) time is determined by the
length of time necessary to for the AEC to respond to the
radiation and for the generator to terminate the exposure.
Backup time is set at 150% (1.5 times) that of the anticipated
manual exposure.
If exposure is expected to be 75 kV at 100 mAs, it will terminate
at 150 mAs.
Most common and popular AEC device is the three
chambers: