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PEDIATRICS
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
published: 05 November 2014
doi: 10.3389/fped.2014.00120
Neonatal magnesium levels correlate with motor
outcomes in premature infants: a long-term retrospective
cohort study
Elizabeth Doll1
, Jacob Wilkes2
, Lawrence J. Cook3
, E. Kent Korgenski2
, Roger G. Faix4
, Bradley A.Yoder4
,
Rajendu Srivastava2,5
, Catherine M.T. Sherwin6
, Michael G. Spigarelli6
, Erin A. S. Clark7
and
Joshua L. Bonkowsky 1
*
1
Division of Pediatric Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
2
Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
3
Division of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
4
Division of Neonatology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
5
Division of Inpatient Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
6
Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
7
Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
Edited by:
Eugene R. Schnitzler, Loyola
University Medical Center, USA
Reviewed by:
D. Mishra, Maulana Azad Medical
College, India
Christopher Mario Inglese, Loyola
University Stritch College of
Medicine, USA
*Correspondence:
Joshua L. Bonkowsky, Department of
Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric
Neurology, University of Utah Health
Sciences Center, 295 Chipeta
Way/Williams Building, Salt Lake City,
UT 84108, USA
e-mail: joshua.bonkowsky@hsc.
utah.edu
Objective: Chronic neurological deficits are a significant complication of preterm birth.
Magnesium supplementation has been suggested to have neuroprotective function in the
developing brain. Our objective was to determine whether higher neonatal serum mag-
nesium levels were associated with better long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in
very-low birth weight infants.
Study Design: A retrospective cohort of 75 preterm infants (<1500 g, gestational age
<27 weeks) had follow-up for the outcomes of abnormal motor exam and for epilepsy.
Average total serum magnesium level in the neonate during the period of prematurity was
the main independent variable assessed, tested using a Wilcoxon rank-sum test.
Results: Higher average serum magnesium level was associated with a statistically signif-
icant decreased risk for abnormal motor exam (p = 0.037). A lower risk for epilepsy in the
group with higher magnesium level did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.06).
Conclusion: This study demonstrates a correlation between higher neonatal magnesium
levels and decreased risk for long-term abnormal motor exam. Larger studies are needed
to evaluate the hypothesis that higher neonatal magnesium levels can improve long-term
neurodevelopmental outcomes.
Keywords: magnesium, prematurity, neurological,VLBW, neuroprotection, neonate
INTRODUCTION
Preterm birth can lead to a wide range of motor and intellectual
disabilities affecting up to 35% of survivors (1–4). Very-low birth
weight (VLBW) infants with birth weight less than 1500 g have ele-
vated rates of cerebral palsy,epilepsy,autism,intellectual disability,
andbehavioralproblems(5,6).Whilesurvivalrateshaveimproved
dramatically for premature infants (7), neurodevelopmental out-
comes have not (8). Despite efforts to reduce preterm birth, the
rate has remained relatively stable over the last few decades and
was 11.7% in the United States in 2011 (9).
Theneurodevelopmentalproblemsinprematurelyborninfants
are caused by a variety of complex pathophysiological mechanisms
(10, 11) with few therapeutic options (12). Further, the complica-
tions of preterm birth are now also recognized to damage both gray
matter and axon tracts and to lead to impaired neurodevelopment
(13–17).
Abbreviations: CNS, central nervous system; EDW, enterprise data warehouse; IH,
intermountain healthcare; VLBW, very-low birth weight.
Magnesium sulfate administered antenatally has been found
to reduce rates of cerebral palsy when given prior to preterm
birth (18–20). Magnesium has also been found in small studies to
improve neurodevelopmental outcomes in term infants with birth
asphyxia (21–24). Further, several animal model studies suggest
that magnesium could play neuroprotective roles in the developing
vertebrate CNS (25–27).
Our hypothesis was that postnatal magnesium could serve a
neuroprotective role in the developing premature brain. Mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) data suggest that longer exposure
of premature infants to the extrauterine environment results in
increasing impairments of CNS connectivity (28). We posited that
magnesium could help protect connectivity development of pre-
mature infants, and that higher magnesium levels throughout the
premature period could be neuroprotective.
To address this hypothesis, we evaluated serum magnesium
levels in VLBW infants and compared these with long-term
neurodevelopmental outcomes, specifically epilepsy, and abnor-
mal motor exam. We recorded magnesium levels during the initial
www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 1
Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection
hospitalization, for the time period when the infants were still pre-
mature (less than 37 weeks gestation). The objective of our study
was to determine whether higher neonatal magnesium levels are
associated with improved long-term neurological outcomes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
ETHICS STATEMENT
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards
at the University of Utah and Intermountain Healthcare (IH).
Data were anonymously collected and analyzed with no iden-
tifying information, and a waiver of informed consent was
obtained.
STUDY DESIGN AND DATA EXTRACTION
Data extraction and analysis were performed retrospectively in a
cohort of premature infants born at an IH hospital and who were
seeninfollow-upintheUtahStateDepartmentof HealthNeonatal
Follow-up Program. The cohort consisted of a consecutive series
of 107 infants born between 1/1/06 through 12/31/10, with birth
weights <1500 g and up to 266/7 weeks gestational age (Table 1).
Five patients were lost to follow-up; 27 patients had incomplete or
missing data and were not included in analysis (Table 2). Serum
magnesium levels were those drawn during the initial hospitaliza-
tion up through the end of the premature period; defined as less
than 37 weeks gestation. IH is a large, vertically integrated not-for-
profit health care system in the Intermountain West encompassing
23 hospitals including the single children’s hospital. Antenatal,
perinatal,and follow-up data were extracted for each patient in the
cohort from the Enterprise Data Warehouse (EDW) maintained
by IH.
Table 1 | Demographic characteristics of the study group.
Characteristic Study cohort n (%)
Gender (male) 44 (59%)
Ethnicity
Caucasian 51 (68%)
Hispanic 8 (11%)
Pacific-Islander 2 (3%)
African-American 2 (3%)
Native American 1 (1%)
Asian 3 (4%)
Unknown 8 (11%)
Multiple gestation 4 (5%)
Antenatal magnesium 20 (27%)
Gestational age (weeks)
Mean (SD; range) 25.8 (1.2; 22–27)
Median (Q1, Q3) 26.0 (25.0, 26.7)
Birth weight (g)
Mean (SD; range) 817.3 (213; 450–1410)
Median (Q1, Q3) 770 (660, 930)
Length of mechanical ventilation (days)
Mean (SD; range) 12.1 (21.6, 0–97)
Median (Q1, Q3) 3, (2, 6)
Study group, n = 75.
SD, standard deviation; g, grams; Q1 and Q3, first and third quartiles.
We queried the EDW using unique identifiers assigned to each
of the cohort infants for the period including up to 5 years after
birth. Data collected from the EDW included name; date of birth;
gender; ethnicity; birth weight; birth head circumference; ges-
tational age; presence of multiple gestation; administration of
corticosteroids prior to delivery; administration of magnesium
sulfate prior to delivery; mode of delivery; length of hospitaliza-
tion; all neonatal total serum magnesium levels; days requiring
mechanical ventilation; and the presence of seizures (ICD-9 codes
779.0 and 345.x). Of note, diagnoses of seizures at any time dur-
ing the NICU hospitalization were excluded, as was the diagnosis
of febrile seizures. Data extracted manually from the neurodevel-
opmental assessment at age 20–36 months included neurological
exam for hypotonia, spasticity, and/or cerebral palsy.
Long-term follow-up for infants was assessed and recorded
using two sources. First, for the outcome of the abnormal motor
exam, data from the Utah State Department of Health Neonatal
Follow-up Program were obtained. A standardized neurologi-
cal motor exam was performed by a developmental pediatrician
or pediatric neurologist when the infant was between 20 and
36 months of age. An abnormal motor exam was defined as cere-
bral palsy (including hypertonia/spasticity or dystonia), hypoto-
nia, or spasticity. Second, for the outcome of epilepsy, we followed
the infants for up to 5 years after birth using the EDW. We defined
epilepsy as any encounter that had a record of the patient hav-
ing had a seizure and for which the patient was placed on an
anti-epileptic drug. The outcome of epilepsy excluded seizures
that occurred solely during the NICU hospitalization; and febrile
seizures.
We limited the time period of magnesium levels used in
our analysis to that of prematurity only; i.e., less than 37 weeks
gestation. In the IH system, the lower and upper limits of magne-
sium levels are defined as from 1.2 to 2.8 mg/dL, respectively.
Table 2 | Selected demographic, birth, laboratory, and outcome
characteristics of the excluded patients n = 27 (no magnesium levels
drawn).
Characteristic Excluded cohort n (%)
Gender (male) 9 (33%)
Ethnicity
Caucasian 20 (71.4%)
Hispanic 3 (11%)
Pacific-Islander 0 (0%)
African-American 1 (3.6%)
Native American 0 (0%)
Asian 0 (0%)
Unknown 3 (14%)
Multiple gestation 4 (15%)
Gestational age (weeks)
Mean (range) 25.7 (23.8–27)
Birth weight (g)
Average 789
Range 500–1110
Length of mechanical ventilation (days)
Mean (range) 8.6 (0–45)
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Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical analyses were performed using SAS Analytics Pro ver-
sion 9.3 (SAS Inc.). Descriptive statistics were used to characterize
the study cohort. Wilcoxon Rank-Sum tests were used to compare
magnesium levels for the outcomes of seizures and of compos-
ite abnormal motor exams. An alpha level of 0.05 was used to
determine statistical significance; p-values were two-sided. For
multivariate logistic regression analysis we modeled birth weight
and magnesium levels by analysis of quartiles.
RESULTS
We collected all total serum magnesium levels (n = 223) drawn on
a cohort of 75 very-low birth weight (VLBW) infants during their
initial, post-birth hospitalization (Table 1). There were no deaths
in the study cohort. On average infants had their magnesium
levels checked three times, but the number of magnesium levels
checked ranged from 1 to 17 times (Table 3). Average total serum
magnesium level was 2.4 mg/dL with a range of 1.1–5.8 mg/dL.
There were 10 (13%) infants that had epilepsy, and 24 (32%)
with abnormal motor exams. Abnormal motor exam, which was
defined as the presence of cerebral palsy, hypotonia, or spasticity,
was assessed between 20 and 36 months after birth. The outcome
of epilepsy was assessed for by following patient outcomes for up
to 5 years after birth. Importantly, to avoid inflating epilepsy rates,
“epilepsy” was defined for the purpose of outcomes by exclud-
ing seizures which occurred in the neonatal period only, and by
excluding febrile seizures.
All infants with epilepsy also had an abnormal motor exam.
We found that children with abnormal motor exams had sta-
tistically significant lower magnesium levels in the neonatal
period (p = 0.037) (Table 4; Figure 1A). Infants who went on to
develop epilepsy had lower average minimum magnesium levels
in the neonatal period, but this was not statistically significant
(p = 0.060) (Table 4; Figure 1B). We also performed logistic
regression analyses that included birth weight and magnesium
level. While they showed a trend toward lower magnesium levels
associated with increased risk for abnormal motor outcome or
for epilepsy, the sample size was underpowered and did not show
statistically significant differences (Table 5).
We also considered whether there might be potential clinical
history confounders, by examining whether there were other clin-
ical characteristics associated with high or low magnesium levels
Table 3 | Characteristics of serum magnesium testing.
Characteristic
Average number of draws/infant 3
Range number of draws/infant 1–17
Age at first draw (DOL) (avg.) 3.5
Range of age for first draw (DOL) 0–56
Proportion of draws <3 DOL 36%
Serum levels (mg/dl)
Mean (SD; range) 2.4 (0.83; 1.1–5.8)
Median 2.2 (1.9, 2.7)
Mode 2.1
DOL, day of life; SD, standard deviation.
(high defined as 2.3 mg/dL or above, low 2.2 mg/dL and below)
(Table 6), and by analyzing whether other clinical characteristics
were associated with the outcomes of epilepsy or abnormal motor
outcome (Table 7). While there were some differences between the
groups, there was not a consistent trend.
DISCUSSION
We examined the correlation between postnatal magnesium levels
and neurodevelopmental outcomes in premature infants. While
prenatal magnesium administration has been associated with a
decreased risk of cerebral palsy (18–20), our study demonstrates
that postnatal serum magnesium levels in VLBW infants may be
associated with improved neurodevelopmental outcomes. Specif-
ically, higher serum magnesium levels in preterm infants were
associated with lower rates of an abnormal motor exam (spas-
ticity, cerebral palsy, or hypotonia). There was a lower risk for
epilepsy, but this finding was not statistically significant.
Our study raises the possibility that there may be a broader
window of opportunity for magnesium administration in prema-
ture infants to help improve neurodevelopmental outcomes. That
is, perhaps magnesium supplementation could also be considered
in premature infants and not only in mothers at risk for preterm
birth. Use of magnesium sulfate would have to be balanced with
concerns for potential adverse side-effects in premature infants
(29, 30). Another issue requiring further study will be research on
the mechanism(s) of potential neuroprotection. This is because
most infants had a magnesium level in the “normal” range, and
because there was significant overlap in the magnesium levels of
infants with normal outcomes compared to infants who developed
epilepsy or abnormal motor outcomes (Figure 1).
Animal model data show a neuroprotective role for magnesium
against injury in the developing CNS (25–27). Further, in term
infants with birth asphyxia a potentially protective role has been
suggested for magnesium (21–24). There are multiple potential
mechanism(s) by which magnesium could exert neuroprotective
effects. Magnesium can block calcium influx through the N-
methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channel and thereby reduce
glutamate excitotoxicity; can reduce inflammatory cytokine and
free radical production; can stabilize membranes; and can nor-
malize blood pressure fluctuations (31–33). Magnesium can also
prevent activation of the hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF1α)
pathway that leads to axon pathfinding errors (27).
Table 4 |Wilcoxon rank-sum tests for epilepsy and for abnormal motor
exam.
Magnesium level Outcome p-Value
Epilepsy
No (n = 65) Yes (n = 10)
Median 2.30 1.95 0.060
Abnormal motor exam
No (n = 51) Yes (n = 24)
Median 2.30 2.00 0.037
The number of patients with the outcome is indicated in parentheses. Magnesium
levels are milligrams per deciliter. Two-sided p-values are given.
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Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection
FIGURE 1 | Strip scatterplots of average magnesium levels (x-axis) and neurodevelopmental outcomes, for abnormal motor exam (A), and
epilepsy (B). Thin line is the median; dotted lines show 25th and 75th quartiles.
Frontiers in Pediatrics | Neuropediatrics November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 4
Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection
Table 5 | Logistic regression results; (A) Multivariable regression analysis for the outcome of seizures, analyzed for birth weight and magnesium
levels; (B) Multivariable regression analysis for the outcome of abnormal motor exam, analyzed for birth weight, and magnesium levels.
(A)
Average magnesium level quartile by seizures
Quartile of Mg level No Yes
Q1, Mg level ≤1.9 17 (77%) 5 (23%)
Q2, 1.9 < Mg level ≤2.2 14 (82%) 3 (18%)
Q3, 2.2 < Mg level ≤2.7 18 (95%) 1 (5%)
Q4, Mg level > 2.7 16 (94%) 1 (6%)
Birth weight quartile by seizures
Quartile of Mg level No Yes
Q1, Birth weight ≤660 19 (95%) 1 (5%)
Q2, 660 < Birth weight ≤770 14 (78%) 4 (22%)
Q3, 770 < Birth weight ≤930 16 (84%) 3 (16%)
Q4, Birth weight > 930 16 (89%) 2 (11%)
Parameter Estimate LCL UCL p-Value
Birth weight (Q4 = Ref)
Q1 1.00 0.22 4.51 1.00
Q2 1.34 0.31 5.89 0.696
Q3 1.15 0.28 4.76 0.842
Milligrams level (Q4 = Ref)
Q1 2.40 0.62 9.24 0.842
Q2 1.30 0.30 5.61 0.725
Q3 0.28 0.05 1.72 0.169
(B)
Average magnesium level quartile by abnormal motor scores
Quartile of milligram level No Yes
Q1, Mg level ≤1.9 11 (50%) 11 (50%)
Q2, 1.9 < Mg level ≤2.2 11 (65%) 6 (35%)
Q3, 2.2 < Mg level ≤2.7 17 (89%) 2 (11%)
Q4, Mg level >2.7 12 (71%) 5 (29%)
Birth weight quartile by abnormal motor scores
Quartile of milligrams Level No Yes
Q1, Birth weight ≤660 17 (77%) 5 (23%)
Q2, 660 < Birth weight ≤770 14 (82%) 3 (18%)
Q3, 770 < Birth weight ≤930 18 (95%) 1 (5%)
Q4, Birth weight >930 16 (94%) 1 (6%)
Parameter Estimate LCL UCL p-Value
Birth weight (Q4 = Ref)
Q1 0.61 0.05 7.77 0.700
Q2 3.10 0.45 21.39 0.251
Q3 1.46 0.20 10.50 0.707
Milligrams level (Q4 = Ref)
Q1 4.82 0.48 47.91 0.180
Q2 3.51 0.31 39.89 0.311
Q3 0.86 0.047 15.59 0.917
LCL, 95% lower confidence limit; UCL, 95% upper confidence limit; Q1, first quartile.
(A) Fisher’s exact p-value = 0.316; Fisher’s exact p-value = 0.891.
(B) Fisher’s exact p-Value = 0.058; Fisher’s exact p-value = 0.434.
Limitations of this study included sample size, retrospec-
tive data collection, and missing follow-up for some infants.
While the presence of an abnormal neuro-motor exam can be
determined by age 20 months as was done in this study, a more
extensive longitudinal study with objective scoring, such as using
the Bailey Scale of Infant Development, would provide more
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Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection
Table 6 | Comparison of clinical variables in “low” and “high”
magnesium patient groups.
Clinical variable Low magnesium High magnesium
Male gender 57% 59%
Caucasian 71% 68%
Birth weight 872 g 755 g
Gestational age 25.9 weeks 25.7 weeks
Maternal age 27.5 years 28.4 years
Maternal parity 3.1 2.6
Maternal smoking 29% 14%
Medicaid 36% 38%
Maternal diabetes 0 5.4%
Maternal hypertension 7.1% 32%
Maternal drug use 7.1% 0
Multiple gestation 0 10.8%
Antepartum hemorrhage 29% 16%
Chorioamnionitis 4.8% 2.7%
Steroids pre-delivery 83% 73%
Ventilator days 12.3 10.9
ECMO 0% 0%
Hydrocephalus 7.1% 8.1%
NEC 17% 11%
IVH (Grade II, III, IV) 40% 27%
Length of stay 109 days 104 days
“Low” magnesium was defined as average magnesium level of 2.2 mg/dL or
lower; “high” was defined as 2.3 mg/dL or higher.
ECMO, extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation; IVH, intraventricular hemor-
rhage; NEC, necrotizing enterocolitis.
reliable outcomes data. We excluded 32 infants from our analy-
sis because of incomplete data, including a lack of magnesium
levels. The small sample size also led to limitations on perform-
ing multivariate regression analyzes (34). Another bias could
arise because timing of magnesium level blood draws were not
evenly distributed in the different infants; and were not dis-
tributed evenly across the hospitalization. Because of the sam-
ple size, we were not able to control for multiple factors that
could play an important role in the outcomes, such as intra-
ventricular hemorrhage; maternal steroid or magnesium admin-
istration; or birth weight, among others. Pharmacokinetics and
pharmacodynamics of serum magnesium can be affected by both
endogenous and iatrogenic factors, including medications and
calcium metabolism. Our study did not address these issues. In
fact, normative premature infant magnesium levels, and effects
of maternal magnesium administration on neonatal levels, are
under active study (35, 36), and are important subjects for future
research.
Our pilot findings raise the possibility that magnesium lev-
els during a critical developmental time window could affect
neurological outcome. In the U.S. 500,000 births each year
are premature, while worldwide it is estimated that 12.9 mil-
lion infants yearly are born before 37 weeks gestation (9, 37,
38). This significant burden of prematurity, with its attendant
risks for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, warrants further
Table 7 | Comparison of clinical variables and the outcomes for
epilepsy or abnormal motor exam.
Clinical variable Epilepsy Abnormal motor
+/− +/−
Male gender 90/57% 65/55%
Caucasian 60/71% 69/70%
Birth weight 832/815 g 833/810 g
Gestational age (days) 179/181 180/181
Maternal age 25.5/28.3 25.7/29
Maternal parity 4.2/2.7 2.47/1.74
Maternal smoking 10/23% 12/26%
Medicaid 60/33% 46/32%
Maternal diabetes 0/2.9% 0/3.8%
Maternal hypertension 0/21.7% 12/23%
Maternal drug use 0/4.3% 0/5.7%
Multiple gestation 0/5.8% 0/7.5%
Antepartum hemorrhage 50/19% 31/19%
Chorioamnionitis 0/4.3% 3.8/5.7%
Mg pre-delivery 20/35% 19/28%
Steroids pre-delivery 90/77% 88/74%
Ventilator days 19/11 17/9.2
ECMO 0/0% 0/0%
Hydrocephalus 20/5.8% 15/3.8%
NEC 10/14% 12/15%
IVH (Grade II, III, IV) 50/32 50/26
Length of stay (days) 132/103 123/98
+, diagnosis present; −, diagnosis absent (e.g., normal).
ECMO, extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation; IVH, intraventricular hemor-
rhage; NEC, necrotizing enterocolitis.
investigations into potential neuroprotective roles for magnesium
after preterm birth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank F. Balch and X. Sheng for helpful discussions. Sources
of financial support: RGF was funded in part by NIH grant U10
HD053124 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development. EASC was funded
in part by NIH grant K23 HD061910 from the Eunice Kennedy
Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Develop-
ment. JLB was funded in part by NIH grants K08 DA024753 and
DP2 MH100008, from the March of Dimes Foundation, and from
the Primary Children’s Medical Center Foundation.
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed
as a potential conflict of interest.
Received: 20 July 2014; accepted: 22 October 2014; published online: 05 November
2014.
Citation: Doll E, Wilkes J, Cook LJ, Korgenski EK, Faix RG, Yoder BA, Srivastava
R, Sherwin CMT, Spigarelli MG, Clark EAS and Bonkowsky JL (2014) Neonatal
magnesium levels correlate with motor outcomes in premature infants: a long-term
retrospective cohort study. Front. Pediatr. 2:120. doi: 10.3389/fped.2014.00120
This article was submitted to Neuropediatrics, a section of the journal Frontiers in
Pediatrics.
Copyright © 2014 Doll, Wilkes, Cook, Korgenski, Faix, Yoder, Srivastava, Sherwin,
Spigarelli, Clark and Bonkowsky. This is an open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or
reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor
are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with
accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which
does not comply with these terms.
www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 7

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Fped 02-00120

  • 1. PEDIATRICS ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 05 November 2014 doi: 10.3389/fped.2014.00120 Neonatal magnesium levels correlate with motor outcomes in premature infants: a long-term retrospective cohort study Elizabeth Doll1 , Jacob Wilkes2 , Lawrence J. Cook3 , E. Kent Korgenski2 , Roger G. Faix4 , Bradley A.Yoder4 , Rajendu Srivastava2,5 , Catherine M.T. Sherwin6 , Michael G. Spigarelli6 , Erin A. S. Clark7 and Joshua L. Bonkowsky 1 * 1 Division of Pediatric Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 2 Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 3 Division of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 4 Division of Neonatology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 5 Division of Inpatient Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 6 Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA 7 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Edited by: Eugene R. Schnitzler, Loyola University Medical Center, USA Reviewed by: D. Mishra, Maulana Azad Medical College, India Christopher Mario Inglese, Loyola University Stritch College of Medicine, USA *Correspondence: Joshua L. Bonkowsky, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Neurology, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, 295 Chipeta Way/Williams Building, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA e-mail: joshua.bonkowsky@hsc. utah.edu Objective: Chronic neurological deficits are a significant complication of preterm birth. Magnesium supplementation has been suggested to have neuroprotective function in the developing brain. Our objective was to determine whether higher neonatal serum mag- nesium levels were associated with better long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in very-low birth weight infants. Study Design: A retrospective cohort of 75 preterm infants (<1500 g, gestational age <27 weeks) had follow-up for the outcomes of abnormal motor exam and for epilepsy. Average total serum magnesium level in the neonate during the period of prematurity was the main independent variable assessed, tested using a Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Results: Higher average serum magnesium level was associated with a statistically signif- icant decreased risk for abnormal motor exam (p = 0.037). A lower risk for epilepsy in the group with higher magnesium level did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.06). Conclusion: This study demonstrates a correlation between higher neonatal magnesium levels and decreased risk for long-term abnormal motor exam. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the hypothesis that higher neonatal magnesium levels can improve long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. Keywords: magnesium, prematurity, neurological,VLBW, neuroprotection, neonate INTRODUCTION Preterm birth can lead to a wide range of motor and intellectual disabilities affecting up to 35% of survivors (1–4). Very-low birth weight (VLBW) infants with birth weight less than 1500 g have ele- vated rates of cerebral palsy,epilepsy,autism,intellectual disability, andbehavioralproblems(5,6).Whilesurvivalrateshaveimproved dramatically for premature infants (7), neurodevelopmental out- comes have not (8). Despite efforts to reduce preterm birth, the rate has remained relatively stable over the last few decades and was 11.7% in the United States in 2011 (9). Theneurodevelopmentalproblemsinprematurelyborninfants are caused by a variety of complex pathophysiological mechanisms (10, 11) with few therapeutic options (12). Further, the complica- tions of preterm birth are now also recognized to damage both gray matter and axon tracts and to lead to impaired neurodevelopment (13–17). Abbreviations: CNS, central nervous system; EDW, enterprise data warehouse; IH, intermountain healthcare; VLBW, very-low birth weight. Magnesium sulfate administered antenatally has been found to reduce rates of cerebral palsy when given prior to preterm birth (18–20). Magnesium has also been found in small studies to improve neurodevelopmental outcomes in term infants with birth asphyxia (21–24). Further, several animal model studies suggest that magnesium could play neuroprotective roles in the developing vertebrate CNS (25–27). Our hypothesis was that postnatal magnesium could serve a neuroprotective role in the developing premature brain. Mag- netic resonance imaging (MRI) data suggest that longer exposure of premature infants to the extrauterine environment results in increasing impairments of CNS connectivity (28). We posited that magnesium could help protect connectivity development of pre- mature infants, and that higher magnesium levels throughout the premature period could be neuroprotective. To address this hypothesis, we evaluated serum magnesium levels in VLBW infants and compared these with long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes, specifically epilepsy, and abnor- mal motor exam. We recorded magnesium levels during the initial www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 1
  • 2. Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection hospitalization, for the time period when the infants were still pre- mature (less than 37 weeks gestation). The objective of our study was to determine whether higher neonatal magnesium levels are associated with improved long-term neurological outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS ETHICS STATEMENT This study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at the University of Utah and Intermountain Healthcare (IH). Data were anonymously collected and analyzed with no iden- tifying information, and a waiver of informed consent was obtained. STUDY DESIGN AND DATA EXTRACTION Data extraction and analysis were performed retrospectively in a cohort of premature infants born at an IH hospital and who were seeninfollow-upintheUtahStateDepartmentof HealthNeonatal Follow-up Program. The cohort consisted of a consecutive series of 107 infants born between 1/1/06 through 12/31/10, with birth weights <1500 g and up to 266/7 weeks gestational age (Table 1). Five patients were lost to follow-up; 27 patients had incomplete or missing data and were not included in analysis (Table 2). Serum magnesium levels were those drawn during the initial hospitaliza- tion up through the end of the premature period; defined as less than 37 weeks gestation. IH is a large, vertically integrated not-for- profit health care system in the Intermountain West encompassing 23 hospitals including the single children’s hospital. Antenatal, perinatal,and follow-up data were extracted for each patient in the cohort from the Enterprise Data Warehouse (EDW) maintained by IH. Table 1 | Demographic characteristics of the study group. Characteristic Study cohort n (%) Gender (male) 44 (59%) Ethnicity Caucasian 51 (68%) Hispanic 8 (11%) Pacific-Islander 2 (3%) African-American 2 (3%) Native American 1 (1%) Asian 3 (4%) Unknown 8 (11%) Multiple gestation 4 (5%) Antenatal magnesium 20 (27%) Gestational age (weeks) Mean (SD; range) 25.8 (1.2; 22–27) Median (Q1, Q3) 26.0 (25.0, 26.7) Birth weight (g) Mean (SD; range) 817.3 (213; 450–1410) Median (Q1, Q3) 770 (660, 930) Length of mechanical ventilation (days) Mean (SD; range) 12.1 (21.6, 0–97) Median (Q1, Q3) 3, (2, 6) Study group, n = 75. SD, standard deviation; g, grams; Q1 and Q3, first and third quartiles. We queried the EDW using unique identifiers assigned to each of the cohort infants for the period including up to 5 years after birth. Data collected from the EDW included name; date of birth; gender; ethnicity; birth weight; birth head circumference; ges- tational age; presence of multiple gestation; administration of corticosteroids prior to delivery; administration of magnesium sulfate prior to delivery; mode of delivery; length of hospitaliza- tion; all neonatal total serum magnesium levels; days requiring mechanical ventilation; and the presence of seizures (ICD-9 codes 779.0 and 345.x). Of note, diagnoses of seizures at any time dur- ing the NICU hospitalization were excluded, as was the diagnosis of febrile seizures. Data extracted manually from the neurodevel- opmental assessment at age 20–36 months included neurological exam for hypotonia, spasticity, and/or cerebral palsy. Long-term follow-up for infants was assessed and recorded using two sources. First, for the outcome of the abnormal motor exam, data from the Utah State Department of Health Neonatal Follow-up Program were obtained. A standardized neurologi- cal motor exam was performed by a developmental pediatrician or pediatric neurologist when the infant was between 20 and 36 months of age. An abnormal motor exam was defined as cere- bral palsy (including hypertonia/spasticity or dystonia), hypoto- nia, or spasticity. Second, for the outcome of epilepsy, we followed the infants for up to 5 years after birth using the EDW. We defined epilepsy as any encounter that had a record of the patient hav- ing had a seizure and for which the patient was placed on an anti-epileptic drug. The outcome of epilepsy excluded seizures that occurred solely during the NICU hospitalization; and febrile seizures. We limited the time period of magnesium levels used in our analysis to that of prematurity only; i.e., less than 37 weeks gestation. In the IH system, the lower and upper limits of magne- sium levels are defined as from 1.2 to 2.8 mg/dL, respectively. Table 2 | Selected demographic, birth, laboratory, and outcome characteristics of the excluded patients n = 27 (no magnesium levels drawn). Characteristic Excluded cohort n (%) Gender (male) 9 (33%) Ethnicity Caucasian 20 (71.4%) Hispanic 3 (11%) Pacific-Islander 0 (0%) African-American 1 (3.6%) Native American 0 (0%) Asian 0 (0%) Unknown 3 (14%) Multiple gestation 4 (15%) Gestational age (weeks) Mean (range) 25.7 (23.8–27) Birth weight (g) Average 789 Range 500–1110 Length of mechanical ventilation (days) Mean (range) 8.6 (0–45) Frontiers in Pediatrics | Neuropediatrics November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 2
  • 3. Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Statistical analyses were performed using SAS Analytics Pro ver- sion 9.3 (SAS Inc.). Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the study cohort. Wilcoxon Rank-Sum tests were used to compare magnesium levels for the outcomes of seizures and of compos- ite abnormal motor exams. An alpha level of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance; p-values were two-sided. For multivariate logistic regression analysis we modeled birth weight and magnesium levels by analysis of quartiles. RESULTS We collected all total serum magnesium levels (n = 223) drawn on a cohort of 75 very-low birth weight (VLBW) infants during their initial, post-birth hospitalization (Table 1). There were no deaths in the study cohort. On average infants had their magnesium levels checked three times, but the number of magnesium levels checked ranged from 1 to 17 times (Table 3). Average total serum magnesium level was 2.4 mg/dL with a range of 1.1–5.8 mg/dL. There were 10 (13%) infants that had epilepsy, and 24 (32%) with abnormal motor exams. Abnormal motor exam, which was defined as the presence of cerebral palsy, hypotonia, or spasticity, was assessed between 20 and 36 months after birth. The outcome of epilepsy was assessed for by following patient outcomes for up to 5 years after birth. Importantly, to avoid inflating epilepsy rates, “epilepsy” was defined for the purpose of outcomes by exclud- ing seizures which occurred in the neonatal period only, and by excluding febrile seizures. All infants with epilepsy also had an abnormal motor exam. We found that children with abnormal motor exams had sta- tistically significant lower magnesium levels in the neonatal period (p = 0.037) (Table 4; Figure 1A). Infants who went on to develop epilepsy had lower average minimum magnesium levels in the neonatal period, but this was not statistically significant (p = 0.060) (Table 4; Figure 1B). We also performed logistic regression analyses that included birth weight and magnesium level. While they showed a trend toward lower magnesium levels associated with increased risk for abnormal motor outcome or for epilepsy, the sample size was underpowered and did not show statistically significant differences (Table 5). We also considered whether there might be potential clinical history confounders, by examining whether there were other clin- ical characteristics associated with high or low magnesium levels Table 3 | Characteristics of serum magnesium testing. Characteristic Average number of draws/infant 3 Range number of draws/infant 1–17 Age at first draw (DOL) (avg.) 3.5 Range of age for first draw (DOL) 0–56 Proportion of draws <3 DOL 36% Serum levels (mg/dl) Mean (SD; range) 2.4 (0.83; 1.1–5.8) Median 2.2 (1.9, 2.7) Mode 2.1 DOL, day of life; SD, standard deviation. (high defined as 2.3 mg/dL or above, low 2.2 mg/dL and below) (Table 6), and by analyzing whether other clinical characteristics were associated with the outcomes of epilepsy or abnormal motor outcome (Table 7). While there were some differences between the groups, there was not a consistent trend. DISCUSSION We examined the correlation between postnatal magnesium levels and neurodevelopmental outcomes in premature infants. While prenatal magnesium administration has been associated with a decreased risk of cerebral palsy (18–20), our study demonstrates that postnatal serum magnesium levels in VLBW infants may be associated with improved neurodevelopmental outcomes. Specif- ically, higher serum magnesium levels in preterm infants were associated with lower rates of an abnormal motor exam (spas- ticity, cerebral palsy, or hypotonia). There was a lower risk for epilepsy, but this finding was not statistically significant. Our study raises the possibility that there may be a broader window of opportunity for magnesium administration in prema- ture infants to help improve neurodevelopmental outcomes. That is, perhaps magnesium supplementation could also be considered in premature infants and not only in mothers at risk for preterm birth. Use of magnesium sulfate would have to be balanced with concerns for potential adverse side-effects in premature infants (29, 30). Another issue requiring further study will be research on the mechanism(s) of potential neuroprotection. This is because most infants had a magnesium level in the “normal” range, and because there was significant overlap in the magnesium levels of infants with normal outcomes compared to infants who developed epilepsy or abnormal motor outcomes (Figure 1). Animal model data show a neuroprotective role for magnesium against injury in the developing CNS (25–27). Further, in term infants with birth asphyxia a potentially protective role has been suggested for magnesium (21–24). There are multiple potential mechanism(s) by which magnesium could exert neuroprotective effects. Magnesium can block calcium influx through the N- methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channel and thereby reduce glutamate excitotoxicity; can reduce inflammatory cytokine and free radical production; can stabilize membranes; and can nor- malize blood pressure fluctuations (31–33). Magnesium can also prevent activation of the hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) pathway that leads to axon pathfinding errors (27). Table 4 |Wilcoxon rank-sum tests for epilepsy and for abnormal motor exam. Magnesium level Outcome p-Value Epilepsy No (n = 65) Yes (n = 10) Median 2.30 1.95 0.060 Abnormal motor exam No (n = 51) Yes (n = 24) Median 2.30 2.00 0.037 The number of patients with the outcome is indicated in parentheses. Magnesium levels are milligrams per deciliter. Two-sided p-values are given. www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 3
  • 4. Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection FIGURE 1 | Strip scatterplots of average magnesium levels (x-axis) and neurodevelopmental outcomes, for abnormal motor exam (A), and epilepsy (B). Thin line is the median; dotted lines show 25th and 75th quartiles. Frontiers in Pediatrics | Neuropediatrics November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 4
  • 5. Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection Table 5 | Logistic regression results; (A) Multivariable regression analysis for the outcome of seizures, analyzed for birth weight and magnesium levels; (B) Multivariable regression analysis for the outcome of abnormal motor exam, analyzed for birth weight, and magnesium levels. (A) Average magnesium level quartile by seizures Quartile of Mg level No Yes Q1, Mg level ≤1.9 17 (77%) 5 (23%) Q2, 1.9 < Mg level ≤2.2 14 (82%) 3 (18%) Q3, 2.2 < Mg level ≤2.7 18 (95%) 1 (5%) Q4, Mg level > 2.7 16 (94%) 1 (6%) Birth weight quartile by seizures Quartile of Mg level No Yes Q1, Birth weight ≤660 19 (95%) 1 (5%) Q2, 660 < Birth weight ≤770 14 (78%) 4 (22%) Q3, 770 < Birth weight ≤930 16 (84%) 3 (16%) Q4, Birth weight > 930 16 (89%) 2 (11%) Parameter Estimate LCL UCL p-Value Birth weight (Q4 = Ref) Q1 1.00 0.22 4.51 1.00 Q2 1.34 0.31 5.89 0.696 Q3 1.15 0.28 4.76 0.842 Milligrams level (Q4 = Ref) Q1 2.40 0.62 9.24 0.842 Q2 1.30 0.30 5.61 0.725 Q3 0.28 0.05 1.72 0.169 (B) Average magnesium level quartile by abnormal motor scores Quartile of milligram level No Yes Q1, Mg level ≤1.9 11 (50%) 11 (50%) Q2, 1.9 < Mg level ≤2.2 11 (65%) 6 (35%) Q3, 2.2 < Mg level ≤2.7 17 (89%) 2 (11%) Q4, Mg level >2.7 12 (71%) 5 (29%) Birth weight quartile by abnormal motor scores Quartile of milligrams Level No Yes Q1, Birth weight ≤660 17 (77%) 5 (23%) Q2, 660 < Birth weight ≤770 14 (82%) 3 (18%) Q3, 770 < Birth weight ≤930 18 (95%) 1 (5%) Q4, Birth weight >930 16 (94%) 1 (6%) Parameter Estimate LCL UCL p-Value Birth weight (Q4 = Ref) Q1 0.61 0.05 7.77 0.700 Q2 3.10 0.45 21.39 0.251 Q3 1.46 0.20 10.50 0.707 Milligrams level (Q4 = Ref) Q1 4.82 0.48 47.91 0.180 Q2 3.51 0.31 39.89 0.311 Q3 0.86 0.047 15.59 0.917 LCL, 95% lower confidence limit; UCL, 95% upper confidence limit; Q1, first quartile. (A) Fisher’s exact p-value = 0.316; Fisher’s exact p-value = 0.891. (B) Fisher’s exact p-Value = 0.058; Fisher’s exact p-value = 0.434. Limitations of this study included sample size, retrospec- tive data collection, and missing follow-up for some infants. While the presence of an abnormal neuro-motor exam can be determined by age 20 months as was done in this study, a more extensive longitudinal study with objective scoring, such as using the Bailey Scale of Infant Development, would provide more www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 5
  • 6. Doll et al. Magnesium neuroprotection Table 6 | Comparison of clinical variables in “low” and “high” magnesium patient groups. Clinical variable Low magnesium High magnesium Male gender 57% 59% Caucasian 71% 68% Birth weight 872 g 755 g Gestational age 25.9 weeks 25.7 weeks Maternal age 27.5 years 28.4 years Maternal parity 3.1 2.6 Maternal smoking 29% 14% Medicaid 36% 38% Maternal diabetes 0 5.4% Maternal hypertension 7.1% 32% Maternal drug use 7.1% 0 Multiple gestation 0 10.8% Antepartum hemorrhage 29% 16% Chorioamnionitis 4.8% 2.7% Steroids pre-delivery 83% 73% Ventilator days 12.3 10.9 ECMO 0% 0% Hydrocephalus 7.1% 8.1% NEC 17% 11% IVH (Grade II, III, IV) 40% 27% Length of stay 109 days 104 days “Low” magnesium was defined as average magnesium level of 2.2 mg/dL or lower; “high” was defined as 2.3 mg/dL or higher. ECMO, extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation; IVH, intraventricular hemor- rhage; NEC, necrotizing enterocolitis. reliable outcomes data. We excluded 32 infants from our analy- sis because of incomplete data, including a lack of magnesium levels. The small sample size also led to limitations on perform- ing multivariate regression analyzes (34). Another bias could arise because timing of magnesium level blood draws were not evenly distributed in the different infants; and were not dis- tributed evenly across the hospitalization. Because of the sam- ple size, we were not able to control for multiple factors that could play an important role in the outcomes, such as intra- ventricular hemorrhage; maternal steroid or magnesium admin- istration; or birth weight, among others. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of serum magnesium can be affected by both endogenous and iatrogenic factors, including medications and calcium metabolism. Our study did not address these issues. In fact, normative premature infant magnesium levels, and effects of maternal magnesium administration on neonatal levels, are under active study (35, 36), and are important subjects for future research. Our pilot findings raise the possibility that magnesium lev- els during a critical developmental time window could affect neurological outcome. In the U.S. 500,000 births each year are premature, while worldwide it is estimated that 12.9 mil- lion infants yearly are born before 37 weeks gestation (9, 37, 38). This significant burden of prematurity, with its attendant risks for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, warrants further Table 7 | Comparison of clinical variables and the outcomes for epilepsy or abnormal motor exam. Clinical variable Epilepsy Abnormal motor +/− +/− Male gender 90/57% 65/55% Caucasian 60/71% 69/70% Birth weight 832/815 g 833/810 g Gestational age (days) 179/181 180/181 Maternal age 25.5/28.3 25.7/29 Maternal parity 4.2/2.7 2.47/1.74 Maternal smoking 10/23% 12/26% Medicaid 60/33% 46/32% Maternal diabetes 0/2.9% 0/3.8% Maternal hypertension 0/21.7% 12/23% Maternal drug use 0/4.3% 0/5.7% Multiple gestation 0/5.8% 0/7.5% Antepartum hemorrhage 50/19% 31/19% Chorioamnionitis 0/4.3% 3.8/5.7% Mg pre-delivery 20/35% 19/28% Steroids pre-delivery 90/77% 88/74% Ventilator days 19/11 17/9.2 ECMO 0/0% 0/0% Hydrocephalus 20/5.8% 15/3.8% NEC 10/14% 12/15% IVH (Grade II, III, IV) 50/32 50/26 Length of stay (days) 132/103 123/98 +, diagnosis present; −, diagnosis absent (e.g., normal). ECMO, extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation; IVH, intraventricular hemor- rhage; NEC, necrotizing enterocolitis. investigations into potential neuroprotective roles for magnesium after preterm birth. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank F. Balch and X. Sheng for helpful discussions. Sources of financial support: RGF was funded in part by NIH grant U10 HD053124 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. EASC was funded in part by NIH grant K23 HD061910 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Develop- ment. JLB was funded in part by NIH grants K08 DA024753 and DP2 MH100008, from the March of Dimes Foundation, and from the Primary Children’s Medical Center Foundation. REFERENCES 1. Vohr BR, Wright LL, Dusick AM, Mele L, Verter J, Steichen JJ, et al. Neurodevel- opmental and functional outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, 1993-1994. Pediatrics (2000) 105:1216–26. doi:10.1542/peds.105.6. 1216 2. Bass JL, Corwin M, Gozal D, Moore C, Nishida H, Parker S, et al. The effect of chronic or intermittent hypoxia on cognition in childhood: a review of the evidence. Pediatrics (2004) 114:805–16. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0227 3. Barrett RD,Bennet L,Davidson J,Dean JM,George S,Emerald BS,et al. Destruc- tion and reconstruction: hypoxia and the developing brain. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today (2007) 81:163–76. doi:10.1002/bdrc.20095 Frontiers in Pediatrics | Neuropediatrics November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 6
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BullWorld Health Organ (2010) 88:31–8. doi:10.2471/BLT.08.062554 Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Received: 20 July 2014; accepted: 22 October 2014; published online: 05 November 2014. Citation: Doll E, Wilkes J, Cook LJ, Korgenski EK, Faix RG, Yoder BA, Srivastava R, Sherwin CMT, Spigarelli MG, Clark EAS and Bonkowsky JL (2014) Neonatal magnesium levels correlate with motor outcomes in premature infants: a long-term retrospective cohort study. Front. Pediatr. 2:120. doi: 10.3389/fped.2014.00120 This article was submitted to Neuropediatrics, a section of the journal Frontiers in Pediatrics. Copyright © 2014 Doll, Wilkes, Cook, Korgenski, Faix, Yoder, Srivastava, Sherwin, Spigarelli, Clark and Bonkowsky. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 2 | Article 120 | 7