Great help in addtl info about how to collect data, sampling.. what are needed to be collected.

1. Measurement and
Collection of
Data
Part 1

2. DATA COLLECTION METHODS
2

3. Introduction
 Data are the observable and measurable
facts that provide information about the
phenomenon under study
 Primary and secondary data
3

4. > Interview
> Questioning
> Observation
> Bio physiological measurements
> Psychosocial measurement scales
> Record analysis
4

5. CONCEPT
 Data collection involves gathering relevant data
in order to achieve an answer to the problem
stated.
 There are various methods of data collection
which can be used by the investigator depending
upon the nature of study undertaken.
5

6. PURPOSES OF DATA COLLECTION
Data is meaningless as by itself it does not explain or
cause change, information does. Therefore, the aim of
gathering and summarizing data is to transform this
into information in order to:
> identify variables/facts
> measure variable/ phenomena
> describe behavior
> obtain empirical evidence (objective, reliable, valid)
6

7. . FIVE ‘W’s OF DATA COLLECTION
 What data to collect? (Consideration on type of
data)
 From whom data is to be collected
 Who will collect data
 From where the data will be collected
 When is the data to be collected
7

8. The number of data to be collected will depend on:
> Type of study
> Hypothesis to be tested
> Number of variables
> Type of statistical computation
In an experimental study the number will also be
determined by the number of experimental and
control groups. One needs also to consider the
method of administration, the nature of treatment
and the schedule.
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9. SOURCES OF DATA
 Documentary- primary and secondary
 Field sources
 Include living persons who have a fund of knowledge about
or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and
changes over a considerable period of time.
 These people are in a position to describe not only the
existing state of affairs but also the observable trends and
significant milestones in a social process.
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10. HISTORICAL DATA
These consist of documents and various historical
sources to which the historian himself has access.
• Materials of cultural history and analytical
history.
• Personal sources of authentic observers and
witnesses.
• These can be oral, written evidence, artifacts etc.
• Historical data is a combination of primary &
secondary and field sources.
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11. Methods and tools
 Methods- steps or strategies
 Technique- means of gathering data with the use
of specific tools that are used in given methods
 Instrument/ tools- instrument is a device used
to measure the concept that researcher uses to
collect data
11

12. TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS
TECHNIQUES
Method of collecting data
 Observation
TOOLS
Instrument procedure
 Observation check list
(structured unstructured)
 Rating scales, anecdotes
 Machineries, i.e. Video
tape/ Films,
electrocardiogram, closed
circuit T.V.
12

13.  Questioning- self
report
 Questionnaire
 opinionnaire
 Attitude Scale
• Tests on psychomotor
• skills Standardized tools
• Physiological
measurements.
13

14.  Biophysical
measurements.
 Interview
 In vivo
 In vitro
 Physical measurements –
e.g. temperature
 Chemical measurements-
e.g. hormone, sugar
 Microbiological
measurements-e.g.
bacterial count
 Interview Schedule
14

15.  Record Analysis
(Content)
 Others
 Computer assisted
measurement
 Q sorts projective
techniques & Vignettes
15

16. Selection of methods of data collection
• Nature of phenomenon
under study
• Type of research subjects
• Type of research study
• Purpose
• Size of sample
• Distribution of target
population
• Time frame of study
• Literacy level of the
subjects
• Availability of resources
and manpower
• Researchers knowledge
level and competence
16

17. Criteria of evaluation/ assessment of
collection methods
 Accuracy and completeness
 Compatibility with educational level, socio
cultural values and beliefs
 In accordance with nature of phenomenon,
purpose, time frame and resources
17

18. RECORD ANALYSIS
 Records are compilation of writings and figures that individuals
have collected.
 Records are a valuable and lucrative source of nursing research
data.
 Records are ever-present source of material.
 Records are found everywhere in homes, offices, places of leisure,
hospitals, museum (Relics & artifacts), personal diaries and
letters, speeches, Articles, documents etc.
 Records are available in every department, institution,
organizations & Individuals.
 Data sources may be primary or secondary.
18

19. ADVANTAGES
o Records are unbiased collected.
o Records cover a long period of times, therefore research
can discover events and trends.
o Records are inexpensive. All available at one time.
o Records are convenient & time saving and available in their
pure form, complied in neat and orderly fashioned. Records
provide readily available data.
o Researcher can not bias the subjects as the records have
been already collected.
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20. • Existence of large quantity of records allows
researcher a considerable choice of data.
• Data are obtained by an unobtrusive method
• Records can provide personal information about
subjects, beliefs, attitudes and feelings
concerning the topic of interest.
• Records don’t rely on recall but were recorded
when they occurred.
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21. DISADVANTAGES
 Amount of information is limited to what is available.
Researcher can not get more data as subjects are not
present. If record is incomplete, no way to complete it.
 No one sure under which conditions data were collected.
Was more than one person involved in compilation? How
careful they were to handle facts & figures.
 No assurance of accuracy of the records,
 People who presented the original records were not aware
whether it would be used for research. Therefore,
researcher has to admit any error into the study that was
built in the original records.
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22. • Some serious draw backs may be there in data
recording. For e.g. the person who recorded the
data may not have recorded adequately.
• Search for very old records and extracting
information from records may be time
consuming.
• Requesting people who are not involved in the
research work to provide records, may be
intrusion into their work schedule.
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23. PROBLEMS
• Permission has to be sought from concerned People to
study records.
• Difficult to trace if not kept in order & well organized.
• Authorities/ Concerned people/ Officer may not like their
records to be disturbed for the fear of misplacing, pulling
out information (loss of paper from files)
• Organization/ Institution may not like anyone to go
through their pvt. Files other than selected individuals.
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24. • Researcher will require help to retrieve the data.
• Researcher may require interpretation of records
(Meaning of words, symbols, figures etc)
• Records research may be a disagreeable task as records
are stored in basements, stores, boxes etc. Seems difficult
to locate & find records for the period needed.
• Another problem with records is item equivalency. Are
records based on same criteria ? Records from two
institutions may not have data on a particular variable in
the same manner.
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25. • Some records are seldom used after their
compilation. People who compiled might have died or
left the institution or moved away. So value of such
records is forgotten and for all practical purposes
they are lost.
• Organizations may give permission to use records
provided a copy of final research report is given to
them.
• It is important to maintain anonymity, privacy, truth
and accuracy and a consideration for the personal
preferences of the individuals involved.
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26. GUIDELINES IN USE OF RECORDS
 Both primary & secondary sources of data can be
used. Prefer primary source
 Essential to establish authenticity, accuracy,
validity & reliability of data sources (external
and internal criticism)
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27. QUESTIONNAIRE
• Most common research instrument
• It is a paper-pencil approach to data collection
• Can be used with some other tools too in a single study
• Comprised of a series of questions that are filled in by all
subjects in the sample.
• May be distributed to subjects in the classroom, on the
streets, on campus, home or at work;
• Can be mailed to those who live in a large geographical
area as it is expensive and time consuming to reach
individuals directly.
27

28. PURPOSES
• To elicit information from subjects to
supplement findings
• Explore a new topic
• Assess knowledge, attitude, practices, beliefs,
opinions & feelings.
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29. ADVANTAGES
• Relatively simple method of collecting data. Items can be
constructed easily by beginning researcher.
• Rapid and efficient method of gathering data
• Collect data from a widely scattered population
• Inexpensive to distribute
• Easy to tabulate data from close ended items
• Respondents can remain anonymous
• Simple procedure to explore a new topic
• Easiest tool to test for validity & reliability
29

30. > Questionnaire can be flexible concerning type of
item, order of items and topics covered by the
researcher.
> Subjects have time to contemplate their
response to each question
> Measurement is enhanced because all subjects
respond to the same questions.
> Easy accomplishment of data analysis and
interpretation.
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31. DISADVANTAGES
• Inability to probe a topic in-depth unless the questionnaire
is lengthy.
• Respondents may omit or disregard any item that they
choose without giving any explanation
• Some items may force subjects to choose response that
are not their actual choice (Forced-choice items).
• Amount of information gathered is limited by subjects’
time & interest span. Usually people don’t like to take
more than 25 minutes to answer a questionnaire. (Length
of questionnaire should not be more than 60
31

32.  Printing may be costly if questionnaire lengthy and
printed on good quality of paper.
 Addressing outside envelops and postage are time
consuming and expensive respectively.
 Data are limited to information given voluntarily by the
subject. Not all subjects comply with request to participate
 Some items may be misunderstood.
 Questionnaire use limited to literate.
 Subjects’ non-verbal cues cannot be observed.
32

33.  it is impossible to know who returned the
questionnaires in case follow up is needed.
 Special efforts must be made to test the validity
and reliability of the questionnaire.
 Researcher has no opportunity to interact with
respondents.
 Subjects can express their views/opinions better
while speaking than writing.
33

34. Types of Questionnaire
 Close Ended (fixed Alternatives)
 Open Ended.
34

35. Close Ended
• After questions, respondents are given a number
of alternatives to either mark a “Yes” or “No”, check
an item from list of suggested responses.
• Items may be forced choice type e.g. Do you still
beat your wife? “Yes”
• Advantage : Easy to fill, tabulate, analyze and data
suited many statistical analysis.
• Disadvantage: Limited to specific topic to be
answered in a specific way.
35

36. Open Ended Questions
Have no choices from which respondents select their
response. Respondent must “Create” their response.
Why did you choose to take your graduate work at
this university?
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37. Open Ended Questions (CONT)
Advantage : Stimulate thought, solicit suggestions,
probe people’s memories.
Disadvantage: Not suited for mailed questionnaire -
Difficult to construct meaningful variables for
statistical analysis. - Analysis is often problematic
and time consuming
37

38. Partially closed ended questions – provide a
compromise
Though answer choices provided, but subjects have
the option of creating their own response. Example :
For what reasons did you retire before the age of 58?
(i) Health reasons
(ii) desire for more free time
(iii) Was assured of more than adequate income
(iv) Please list as many other reasons as you can think of.
38

39. Factors to consider
Sample
Method
Questionnaire
Result
Cost
Time scale
• Who are u going to ask
• How are u going to ask
• What are u going to ask
• What will u do with the data
• How much do u want to pay for the answer
• By when u need the data
39

40. Methods of questionnaire administration
Postal
Phone
Electronic
Personally administered
40

41. Framing Questions
Question Content
– based on researcher’s aims, concepts under study.
Question Wording
- Clarity
- Ability of respondents to reply
- Bias
- Handling sensitive or personal information.
41

42. Response Alternatives:
Select appropriate response alternatives,
- Ordering responses rationally
- Response length
– Not too lengthy as it is inefficient and cumbersome to read
detailed replies.
Organization
– Plan question sequence (order of question and schedule
format)
- Items should relate to topic
42

43. - Items organized into units
- Questions to be specific.
- Items to elicit demographic data.
- Schedule format – questionnaire schedule affects
the accuracy of the response. Formats that are easy
to follow and pleasing to the eye are completed by
respondents.
43

44. Introduction and Instructions:
- State the nature and purpose of the study in
introduction.
- Why the subjects are being questioned.
- Directions for respondents to respond.
- Confidentiality and anonymity should be assured.
44

45. - Personal data : Age, Sex, Education.
- Back ground data :Family income, occupation, living
environment etc.
- Content : Knowledge, opinion, belief, attitude etc. -
Acknowledging participation.
45

46. Writing Good Questions
 Use words that are simple, direct and familiar to all.
 Question – Clear and Specific
 Define or quality the term that can be easily be misinterpreted.
 Avoid double barreled questions.
 Do you think that students should have more classes about history
and culture?
 Beware of double negatives (Are you against not allowing nurses
to strike?)
 Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasis. e.g.
should all schools offer a modern foreign language?
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47.  Avoid questions that are leading or suggest the
expected answer. e.g. you don’t approve of
strikes, do you?
 Be sure alternatives are enough and appropriate.
 Reason for asking personal question should be
given.
 Problem words – lead to confusion in subject’s
mind. e.g. How many patients did you care for
last week?
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48. Administration of Questionnaire
• Self administered:
- Individual / Group administration
- Maximizes the return rate.
- Allow researcher to clarify any doubts while responding.
• Mailing distribution
– Mailed to respondents with a request letter.
Advantage : Can cover large widely scattered population
48

49. Mailing distribution (cont)
Disadvantage: Some items may need clarification –
- Completion rate tend to be low
- Low returns
- Monitoring return.
Acceptable response rate
- 50% Adequate
- 60% Good
-70% or more is very good.
49

50. Follow up Mailing – Provides stimuli for responding
- Three mailings seem the most efficient.
- Timing of follow up (2 -3 weeks is a reasonable
space between mailings).
- Sending follow up letters.
50

51. Interview – Technique of Data Collection
• Second most common method of data collection
• Face to face interpersonal role situation.
• Interview schedule : structured, semi- structured,
unstructured.
• Interview schedule is an oral questionnaire that is read to the
respondent by the researcher whereas interview guide provides
ideas but allows the interviewer freedom to pursue topics in
depth.
• Interviewer has an ability to control over the level of
questioning
51

52. Advantages
• Data from each interview are usable, whereas not true for
each questionnaire returned.
• In-depth data can be obtained, since researcher can pursue
any question of special interest.
• Interview offers protection against ambiguous or confusing
questions.
• Respondents are less likely to give “don’t know” responses or
leave a question unanswered
• Flexibility
• Permit greater control over the sample
52

53. Advantages (cont)
• Suitable for probing complex situations and
sensitive issues.
• Higher proportion of responses are obtained from
potential respondents.
• Saves interviewee’s time as she/he doesn’t have to
go through the process of returning the instrument.
53

54. Advantages (cont)
• Useful for both literate & illiterates and also
broader group of individuals i.e. young children,
blind, very elderly etc.
• Face to face interviews have an advantage in their
ability to produce additional data through
observation (non-verbal)
• Telephones/videos may be used for soliciting some
types of interview data, especially when time period
for gathering information is short.
54

55. Disadvantages
• It is time consuming and costly
• Rapport and interpersonal relationships are important aspect
of this technique. Therefore, element of bias can be from both
interviewer and interviewee.
• Interviewer usually has little or no choice in the data or place
of the interview
• Difficult to make a comparison of data collected by one
interviewer’s with another unless a rigid procedure is followed.
In large research projects, training of interviewers adds to the
expense of the project
55

56. Disadvantages (cont)
• When more than one interviewer collect data of a
study, the influence of personal bias of interviewers
may affect objectivity.
• Recording may be biased, incomplete or selective
56

57. Conducting the Interview
• Interviews can be conducted by:
 Face to face meeting
 Telephonically
 Video-recording
• Conduct in a quiet peaceful atmosphere
• Subject to be seated in a comfortable position
• Subject should be informed before hand as to how
much time interview will take.
57

58. Conducting the Interview (cont)
• Recording of responses should be done
simultaneously.
Sometimes with subject’s permission, interviewer may
record responses by use of tape recorder/video recording.
Of course experience of writing in shorthand is useful.
• Interviewer must ask the questions in a similar
fashion throughout the data gathering process.
58

59. Build Rapport with the interviewee by
> Introducing self, Nature and purpose of study
> Ask permission to interview
> Create a friendly and pleasant atmosphere for the
subjects
> Assure interviewee’s anonymity and confidentiality of
responses
> Request for frank opinions/feeling etc.
> Should not pressure the individual to answer.
> They should be told they need not answer embarrassing
questions if they don’t wish to do so.
59

60. Problems
• Ineffective procedure for obtaining actual behavior patterns
• Some interviewees may have faulty memories and either can
not remember a certain fact or guess what seems to be a
reasonable answer.
• Subjects may give answers which is representative of a group
rather than their own ideas
• Presence of interviewer may influence the subjects, so that
they answer questions differently than they would if filling a
questionnaire
60

61. • Sample mortality. (Not everyone in the
expected sample may be present)
• Some respondents may not be qualified to
answer some questions asked to them. May not
recognize their own problems.
Respondents get nervous seeing their
responses being written.
• Time is lost, when interviewer has to record
responses. In haste, he may make some
mechanical mistake.
61

62. • Interviewee may lose his train of thoughts
while waiting the interviewer to finish writing
the last response. Thus some data may be lost.
• Interviewer is likely to overlook/become
unaware of non-verbal cues while getting busy
with interview guide or schedule.
62

63. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE
It is one of the basic and oldest method to gather data
Is systematically planned and recorded.
It is a technique to acquire information through
occurrence that can be observed through senses with
or without mechanical devices.
It is a two part process i.e. someone is observing and
there is something to observe (observer; observed)
63

64. Four Broad Questions in observation
What should be observed?
How should observation be recorded ?
What procedures should be used to try to
assure the accuracy of observation ?
What relationship should exist between the
observer and the observed, and how can such
relationship be established?
64

65. Phenomena Amenable to Observation
Characteristics and conditions of individuals – People’s
attributes, status, Physiological conditions (Through
senses and apparatus)
Verbal communication behaviour – linguistic behaviour,
content & structure of conversation, entire process of
social interaction.
Non-verbal communication behaviour – Facial
expressions, touch posture, gesture, body movements,
Linguistic behaviour – manner of speaking, loudness,
continuity of speech
65

66. Activities – People’s behaviour that communicates
overt state. Actions indicative of health status – Physical
and emotional functioning; study of activities of health
personnel etc.
Skill attainment and Performance- Nursing skills-
Procedures, Techniques.
Environmental characteristics/Attributes – noise levels,
cleanliness, ventilation, odour, water supply, mosquito
breeding, Infrastructure.
66

67. Types
> Structured interview
> Unstructured interview
> Semi structured interview
> In depth interview
> Focused group interview
> Telephone interview
67

68. Interviewing process
> Preparation for interview
> Pre interview introduction
> Developing rapport
> the interview forward
> Recording the interview
> Closing the interview
68

69. Observation methods
Unstructured observation – is made to provide as
complete and non-selective a description as possible of
an event –or behavior observed. Techniques used for
unstructured method of observation.
Participant observation – involves researcher to
participate in the functioning of social group under
investigation. Researcher attempts not to interject his
views & meaning into the social situation under
observation.
69

70. Unstructured observation method
Provides rich and deep understanding of
human behavior.
Observer bias and influence are prominent
difficulties.
Memory distortions represent another
possible source of inaccuracy.
70

71. • Log and field notes
• Anecdotes
• Field diaries
• Video and tape recording
71

72. Logs, Field Notes, Anecdotes
Logs – is a record of events & conversation, maintained
on daily basis. Field Notes – include daily log but tend
to be much broader, more analytic and include more
interpretation than mere listing of occurrences.
Essential to record simultaneously because of memory
failure. Anecdotes – Focus on behaviour of particular
interest. Anecdote typically selects specific kind of
events and behaviours for observation before hand.
Observer objectively and accurately records the
observation.
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