Bangladesh_Nazmul_Study_on_construction_of_masculinities_in_rural_schools_in_Southern_Bangladesh__manifested_in_discrimination_towards_girls_0

Study Report
On
How masculinities are constructed at rural
schools in southern Bangladesh and
manifested in discrimination towards girls.
Study report prepared by
Md. Nazmul Ahsan, SANAM Fellow, Bangladesh.
Mentor
Ranjan Karmaker
Steps Towards Development
South Asian Network to Address Masculinities
(SANAM)

SANAM Fellowship 2011 1
Index
CHAPTER-1 .............................................................................................................3
1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................3
1.2 Objectives of the study..................................................................................................3
1.3 Methodologies, sample size and location of the study.................................................3
1.4 Structure of the Education System in Bangladesh ........................................................4
1.5 Major concerns in the education sector........................................................................4
1.6 Limitation of the study...................................................................................................5
CHAPTER-2 .............................................................................................................6
2.1 Conceptual Understanding of Masculinities..................................................................6
2.2 Background logic for working on schools......................................................................9
CHAPTE-3.............................................................................................................. 10
3.1 Summery findings of the study....................................................................................10
a. Regarding physical traits........................................................................................................10
b. Regarding psychological traits...............................................................................................10
c. Masculine Behavior and practice at schools..........................................................................10
CHAPTER-4 ........................................................................................................... 12
Construction of masculinities in schools ...........................................................................12
4.1 Patriarchal perception of the students at the beginning of their schooling.......................12
4.2 Still girls are preferred participating in the reproductive role even at school....................12
4.3 Masculinities are constructed through extra curriculum practice......................................13
4.4 Construction of masculinities and femininities in centering of arranging annul sports .....14
4.5 Formation of Scots and Girl Guide group............................................................................15
4.6 Different subject considering the sexual identity of the students......................................15
4.7 Boys are given responsibility looking after the girls in school.............................................16
4.8 The notion of honor and girls are concentrated in restricted a common room.................16
4.9 Masculine practice in the girls’ common room...................................................................17
4.10 Boys are allowed stretching up their arena in school .......................................................17
4.11 Girls’ free movement is seen as character defeat.............................................................18
4.12 Election of class captain creates hierarchical power relation among the students..........18
4.13 Boys are affectionately treated by glorifying their male-body identity............................18
4.14 Male-body is consider as valuable and female-body as burden.......................................19
4.15 Violence is a regular feature in the classroom and out-sides of the class room...............19
4.16 Family influence is being used by the students for behaving violently.............................19
4.17 Inappropriate role of teachers in addressing violence in school ......................................20
4.18 Girls are victimized of stalking and sexual harassment in school .....................................20
4.19 Corporal and psychological punishment and the mindset of the teachers ......................21
4.20 Dress code helps to constitute socially perceived male and female identity ...................22
4.21 Classroom always for boys and masculinity concentrated in the classroom teaching.....22
4.22 Role of teachers and management committee members for boosting up conservative
norms.........................................................................................................................................23
4.23 Practice of private tuition put the girls in inferior position...............................................24
4.24 Impact of technology in construction of male aggressive sexuality..................................25
4.25 Girls Dropout .....................................................................................................................26
CHAPTER-5 ........................................................................................................... 27

Recommendations.............................................................................................................27
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 28
ANNEXURE-A: KEY QUESTIONS ............................................................................. 30

Chapter-1
1.1 Background
Social construction of the Bangladeshi community follows to the greater patriarchal structure at
every spare of life and the process begins from the very birth of a child. Tradition of gender division
of labor plays a significant role to transform the future human forces to contribute to the family,
society and state as socially expected considering their individual’s sexual identity though the
construction does not limited to it. Following this transformation process in Bangladesh, children try
to be accustomed gradually with the expected sex roles in production and reproduction sector in
family and society. Not only the tradition of gender division of labor does works in construction of
patriarchy, other traditional norms, values and practices derive from the different aspects as well
supplement in that process. All these things work altogether behind to groom all the children from
the family to society. This kind of grooming starts from the family and family members teaches
children for becoming either men or women with the socially-essential traits within the structured
society. Practically family is the first institution in which children become socialized through the
teaching provided by their parents and relatives, later on other social institutions carry this process
to forward.
1.2 Objectives of the study
1. Traits with regard to masculinity and femininity which are supposed to growing among the
students will be identified.
2. Role of the Teachers, Management and Support staffs which influencing in formation of the
masculinity will be revealed.
3. How this learnt roles manifesting discrimination towards girls would be examined.
1.3 Methodologies, sample size and location of the study
The study has been facilitated with the help of different qualitative research methodologies; number
of FGDs (Focus Group Discussion) with Students, teachers and SMC members as well as guardians
have been facilitated in this regard. Therefore information has been collected from the key
informants, those who have long been working experiences with students and schools. In addition to
that number of one-to-one discussions have been arranged with the students, teachers and
guardians for acquiring of in-depth information to address the research objectives. To facilitate the
information collected process a semi-structured questionnaire has been developed (key questions
see Annexure-A), and the development process was guided by literature review of the different
documents and research papers on masculinity and gender issues of different aspects, the review
findings also used as references in the study report later on.
The sample size is really small, only two secondary schools (Junior section) have taken as sample,
this is due to time constraints and guideline needed to follow under this fellowship programe. The
schools are-
1. Latabunia Secondary school, Bamna, Borguna District;
2. Mirukhali Secondary school, Mathbaria, Pirojpur District.
These schools are situated at the south in Bangladesh.

1.4 Structure of the Education System in Bangladesh
Education system of Bangladesh consists of three major stages-primary, secondary and higher.
Primary education is a 5-year cycle while secondary education is a 7- year with three sub-stages: 3
years of junior secondary, 2 years of secondary and 2 years of higher secondary. The entry age for
primary is 6 years. The junior, secondary and higher secondary stages are designed for age groups of
11-13, 14-15 and 16-17 years (Class-VI, Class-VII and Class-VIII). Higher secondary is followed by
graduate level education in general, technical, engineering, agriculture, business studies, and
medical streams requiring 5-6 years to obtain a Masters degree.1
After groomed at family, children come in touch with the first formal institution and got admitted
into a pre-primary or primary school. In a recent research conducted by the Ministry to the primary
and mass education has shown that above 99 percent school-going eligible children got enrolled in
the primary schools.2
Therefore for ensuring the enrollment of the all children at primary and secondary level government
has taken different incentives i.e. stipend for the poor students, free schooling, food supplement in
the school, free text books etc. Gender parity in enrollment has already been achieved at primary
and secondary school. At present girls are holding the major portion in the classroom, currently the
ratio of girls to boys is 1.03 at primary level and 1.17 at secondary level (2009)
Through their enrollment for the first time, children get formal touch in
construction of their personality and traits. Though at the initial stage the learning they received in
the primary schools virtually seems liberal and gender neutral but difference comes gradually out
with the higher classes. At the end of this stage (Primary) students began to learn to identify
themselves differently from each others’ sexual identity.
3
1.5 Major concerns in the education sector
. Though drop out of
the students specially the girls’ still is a big challenge for retaining the fruits of the success of
enrollment. With regard to drop out of the students, it has also been experienced that out of the
dropped out students the majority portions hold by the girls and they are forced to be dropped out
for different social and cultural barriers.
Due to diminish the cultural constraints with regard to achieve gender parity in school and society,
the government has reviewed the text books and reformulate those for avoiding the reproduction of
the traditional gender norms and behaviors. Government has also taken initiatives for incorporating
gender studies in the curriculum of Teachers’ Training College for enhancing the sensitivity level of
the school teachers in order to sensitive handling of the gender issues at their own educational
institutions.
Though there is some progress in the education sector but as per documents developed by the
government of Bangladesh the sector still faces different challenges. The challenges are-
1. Drop out the students specially girls students;
2. Quality of education;
3. Early marriage of the girls’ students;
4. Sexual harassment of the girls students at schools and outside of the school;
5. Cultural and socio economical barriers to the girls’ students at home as well as at school.
1
Source: www.moedu.gov.bd, October,2011
2
Source: The daily Prothom Alo, 21 September 2011, Bangladesh
3
Progress report of millennium development goal (goal-3), Bangladesh Bureau of statistics

Some considered policy issues in education sector of Bangladesh with regard to bring gender
equality4
• Develop self esteem of the girls and women;
-
• Raising awareness of the girls/women about their rights;
• Motivate and make the women skilled to participate in the every aspect of country’s
governing process;
• Ensure women participation and contribution in the socio-economic development;
• Poverty eradication and prepare the women according to it etc.
1.6 Limitation of the study
There are different kinds of limitations persist in this study, the sample size is
too small that’s why the findings could not to be said a true refection to the
country picture, therefore this study is only concentrated on the rural schools
which also could not be able to reveal information about urban schools’
practice. In addition to that this study did not consider the text books, its
content and illustration used in the text book in construction of masculinities
among students rather concentrated only on regular practice at classroom
and outside of the classroom by the fellow students, teachers and School
Management committee member regarding it.
4
Source: National Education policy 2010, Ministry of Education, Government of Bangladesh and National
Women’s Advancement Policy 2011, Ministry of Women and Child Affairs.

Chapter-2
2.1 Conceptual Understanding of Masculinities
In the recent days the question of understanding and mapping masculinity has become increasing
significant in gender studies. To understand the masculinity is a complex thing, Connell defines
masculinity briefly that-
‘Masculinity’ to the extent the term can be briefly defined at all, is simultaneously a place in gender
relations, the practice through which men and women engage that place in gender, and the effects
of these practices in bodily experience’. (Connell, 1995:71)
Radhika Chopra’s work ‘Knowing men: An ethnographer’s Dilemma’ working field at rural Punjab,
India. She showed the process of becoming male is a fluid one, elongated over time and not
achieved at once. Chopra drew a bottom line about the construction of masculinity of boys with the
comments of that masculinity constructs with the combination of bodily alterations and cultural
markers tie up the boy/son in various way so that the set of practices that make up the masculine
self are dispersed over time, space and cultural inscription. Copra says Learning masculinities is not a
linear process and goes through mutation that are cross-cut by elements of age, caste, gender and
work relations through processes where masculinity is constantly learned, constructed and
confirmed (Chopra, Dasgupta & Mandeep k. 2000: 1607-1609).
Krishnan termed masculinity is a set of practice is not homogenous or unitary across time, space,
and social groups. It defers from place to place and shifting its variable upon context to context.
Though the dominant form of masculinity is hegemonic and realized by a very small group of men
who control power and wealth (Krishnan, 2002), this power derives from the resemblance to the
certain cultural and political context but in the masculinity study hegemonic masculinities are not
the only practice there are other kind of non-hegemonic masculinities created by the other aspects
of gathering power also visible in the society and its institutions.
According to Connell (2005) hegemonic masculinities ‘as a concept’ was articulated first by a group
of researchers in Australia in early 80’s. It was first proposed in reports from a field study of social
inequality in Australian High School (Kessler et al. 1982 in Connell 2005); in a related conceptual
discussion of the making of masculinities and the experiences of men’s bodies (Connell 1983 in
Connell 2005); and in a debate over the role of men in Australian labor politics (Connell et al. 1982 in
Connell 2005).
However, the development of the concepts was not accidental as Connell puts ‘closely related issues
were being addressed by researchers and activists too’ (Connell 2005: 83). These ‘closely related’
issues were questioning ‘patriarchy’ as a credible concept by a group of scholar. Involvement of
some men in pro-feminist men’s movement, women of color’s criticism of conceptualizing power
based on sex differences, strong presence of gay liberation movement and influence of
psychoanalysis. As a result of these incidences several things happened: man’s participation in
feminist movement drew attention to the class differences in the expression of masculinity: women
of color criticized the race bias that occurs when power is solely conceptualized in terms of sex
differences.
Whitehead (2002, 89) states hegemonic masculinity is considered as a powerful term as while
mitigating any reductionist over simplifications, it speaks of fluidity, multiplicity, difference and
resistance, not only with the category women but also amongst men.

Bob Connell and John Lee in 1985 argued for an understanding of masculinity that recognized
dominant interpretations and definitions of being masculine to be embedded in and sustained by
(male-dominated) social institutions such as the state, education, corporation and the family. The
sought to describe, indentify and expose the character of a dominant form of masculinity or
‘hegemonic masculinity’ by connecting the institutional aspects of male power with the collective
practice of men.
In the institutions hegemonic and other non-hegemonic masculinities are stratified in the
hierarchical power relationship in which non-hegemonic masculinities stands in the subordination.
Though in hierarchical structure in the masculinities hegemonic takes the upper hand due to close
cultural resemblance but it is not static at all due to emergence of new masculinities in the context
of defining power under globalization and transformation of economy. The non-hegemonic
masculinities sometimes which are called ‘subordinate’ variants of masculinities holding the
subordinate or lower position in the hierarchical structure therefore it contribute in sustaining the
hegemonic masculinity at a broader level by desiring to imitate it.
Connell (1995) looks into the politics in the masculinity study, he identifies four main forms of
masculinity politics: masculinity therapy or mythopoetic, the gun lobby, gay liberation, and exit
politics. The first, the mythopoetic entails the healing of ‘damaged’ men and seeks to constitute men
as the new victims, while the second represents those movements which have sought to protect the
interests of hegemonic masculinities. Groups which fall into this category are those which are based
on concepts such as men’s rights. Gay liberation has come to represent an assertion of gay rights, an
assertion which has not necessarily sought to overthrow the existing gender order. Instead, at times,
it has simply sought to provide a better position for gays in that order. It is within an exit politics that
profeminist can be found. Such men are actively engaged in resisting hegemonic masculinity and
those other ‘complicit’ masculinities (Connell, 1995) which provide a support base for this valorized
masculinity. Thus profeminist men seek to ‘exit’ from those masculinities and related practices which
support the existing gender order.
The debate of construction of masculinities through schooling appears to have been fuelled largely
by concerns articulated within the mythopoetic men’s movement. While the mythopoetic
movement, with its call for men to seek for their essential selves and their deep masculinity in an
appropriation of indigenous rituals conducted with other men (Bly, 1990). Bly has stressed upon the
policies of masculinities in industrial society, this politics claims that the feminist project has
achieved its ends and that the problems men face as a result of the structure and culture of
contemporary post-industrial society now need to be a focus of a men’s movement politics
generally, as well as within schooling. Some accounts fail to take a structural perspective and instead
blame women and feminism for the problem men face. A lot of this debate has also focused upon
men’s health issues, shorter life expectancies than women, higher incidence of cardiac disease and
high suicide rates amongst young men.
In the political claims of the mythopoetic movement much appropriation is made of discourses and
strategies gleaned from the work of the second wave of the women’s movement. For example, the
use of men’s group to discuss their ‘oppression’, talk of the need for ‘boy friendly schooling’ and so
on.
The construction of masculinities and femininities, as well as gender relations, need to be central
concerns in gender equality politics and it needs to be recognized that masculinities are constructed
in relation to femininities as well as other masculinities. The notion of supportive school
environment needs to be enlarged to take account of the harassment some boys also experience in

schools because of their rejection of hegemonic masculinist practice. This also brought to the fore
the need to focus upon the construction of gender, including masculinity, for it is the construction of
hegemonic masculinity which limits choices for many boys, as well as inhibiting school life for girls
and some other boys. Prior raising this concern of masculinity construction at schools ‘gender and
education’ meant ‘girls and education’. Masculinity was an unproblematic construction for most
involved in education, but not for earlier feminist attempts to deal with this issues (e.g. Mahony,
1985). The ‘What about the boys?’ discourse has opened up spaces for feminists and profeminist
men to raises issues relating to the interrelationships between various masculinities and between
masculinities and femininities.
Kimmel’s (1996) Manhood in America and his collection The Politics of Manhood enhance
understanding of the changing, socially and discursively constructed character of masculinity and
can contribute to an analysis of the contemporary mythopoetic driven ‘what about the boys?’
politics in education. Kimmel’s Manhood demonstrates, as other have done, that masculinity is not
a unitary concept and that it is more useful to speak in terms of masculinities rather than an
essentialist masculinity. For Kimmel, there is no deep masculine essence residing in all men as some,
such as Bly (1991), would have it. Masculinities can be grouped around signifiers such as race,
ethnicity, sexuality and class. However, even such regroupings of masculinities do not represent
unitary categories. As Segal (1990, p. 203) has commented in relation to Black masculinities: “In
looking at the oppositional meanings inherent in Black masculinity today, the stress is on diversity.”
The same can be said of masculinities grouped around class and sexualities. Kimmel also illustrates
how these masculinities have been socially constructed and ordered, and how it is the masculinity
ranked highest which becomes the defining touchstone of what it means to be a man in America.
Kimmel also shows how various forms of masculinities politics have intersected and confronted each
other throughout the course, in American context he mentioned the hegemonic construction of ‘real
American men’ have thus come at the expense of not only women, but also of men practicing
marginalized and subordinate masculinities. A core argument of Kammel’s book is that “ Manhood is
less about the drive for domination and more about the fear of others dominating us, having power
or control over us” (p.6). On this surface, this appears a problematic stance- domination is a feature
of hegemonic masculinities. However, most men practice a complicit (rather than hegemonic)
masculinity, the policing of which is based on fear, while processes of ‘othering’ are central to
hegemonic practices.
Thus, any study of masculinities needs to explore the complex interrelationship between competing
notions of masculinities and femininities. In this regard Scott stated that though the relation
between men and women is an obvious field of masculinity but not limited into it rather transcend
to the identities such as class, caste and race. So any study of masculinity should to focus on the
traits or identities in a certain context and how they shape and shaped by masculinities (Scott,
1986).
In this context Joan Scott’s well known argument about the category of gender as a category not
only illuminates unequal relations of power between men and women but helps one to understand
that this unequal male-female relations are extended via metaphors to different areas of social life
so as to signify unequal relation of power in general. What is true of the category of gender is
equally true of the category of masculinities (Scott, 1986). Connell also has given importance of
understanding coexisted different versions of masculinities and femininities at a given historical
period and in the same organization (Connell, 1996). Whatever it is due to the practice of

masculinity men as a group enjoy the institutional privileges though those are not equally shared
(Messner, 1997, p.7).
2.2 Background logic for working on schools
Schools in a certain community influencing a lot in construction of masculinities and femininities
among its students. Chapman (Chapman 2007) showed the role of schools in the socialization of the
boys and girls through using different kind of tools at schools. Formal education at the earliest
periods of life schooling includes normative gendered values and behaviors. That is to say, how do
schools teach boys to be ‘boys’ and girls to be ‘girls’. The school marks the first link between the
pedagogic programs of the family and that of the state, and often (though not always), such
programs replicate patriarchal and masculine values. Secondly, while on the hand schooling may be
complicit in reproducing dominant values, it is also important to inquire about the ways in which it
empowers those to whom it educates. Sadkar (1994) said “ Sitting in the same classroom, reading
the same textbook, listening to the same teacher, boys and girls receive very different educations”.
In fact, upon entering school, girls perform equal to or better than boys on nearly every measure of
achievement, but by they graduated high school or college, they have fallen behind (Sadker, 1994).
Schools, in general, have common properties that should allow them to be discussed together.
However, each school has its own characteristics such as size, location, culture, focus, geography and
the type of people that attend it, and as such students negotiate all of these in particular ways. So
just as differing general local setting can vary from one another (such as workplace from families), so
can their institutions. As an example, a boy in a school is likely to compare himself to the particular
types of gender relations and masculinities in the specific school he attends (which could be more
sporty or more academically inclined or disinclined as the case may be), to other local settings (other
schools), to the regional gender practices, and then to the gender practice of a global setting. But
this boy is also likely to utilize other local settings as referents, such as the family, or sporting
institutions, or part time work settings. This indicates that there are not just interdependencies
across level, but within them as well (Lusher & Robins, 2007). Schools were seen as significant cause
of inequality of women and, more important, as a key institution through which such inequalities
could be dismantled (Hightower 2003: 471).
It has been observing that the practice and behavior of the components of the schools i.e. teachers,
school management committee etc. towards the boys and girls constitutes the masculine and
feminine traits of them which endorse the violent practices; creating hierarchies among themselves
considering the different aspects of masculinities referred by socio-economic, cultural and political
standardization. So to understand the construction of masculinities in a given society it is very
important look into school as a fundamental social institution nursing to the young generation.
Referring Connell (1995) to understand the politics of masculinities studies explicitly concerned with
the social organization, he describes “those mobilizations and struggles where the meaning of
masculine gender is at issue, and with it men’s position in gender relation. In such politics
masculinity is made a principal theme, not taken for granted as background”.
Considering this aspect in this study 2 secondary educational institutes have taken as study field to
let the facts revel of construction of masculinities and address with the constructive
recommendations to the concerns.

Chapte-3
3.1 Summery findings of the study
The study finds the following things for construction of masculine traits among the students in
school.
a. Regarding physical traits
• The general perception of the boys is that a boy should have enough physical strength for
competing with the other boys as well as protecting themselves and their cohorts from any
kind of mistreatment;
• Boys think they have to speak boldly, loudly through using abusive words for transforming as
man in future;
• Boys express their toughness in gesture and engage in violence with the other boys of the
school;
• Tall and mascular boys are favored by their teachers and they are enjoying some kind of
authority and preference in the defined gender relations with the other boys and girls;
• Boys get the scopes for enhancing their physical capability through participating in the
different sport events as well as managerial responsibilities;
• Boys and teachers believe girls should not have as much physical strength as boys have;
• Short and thin boys are pinched by their peers, teachers considering them very improper as
a boy and future man have to play expected role in the family and society as well as dealing
the other men;
• Comparatively dark skinned girls are intimated upon the potential challenges of their
marriage by the fellow boys, girls as well as teachers;
• Sometimes boys have access in the different committees to volunteer considering their
physical appearance and body fitness, in which girls are denied etc.
b. Regarding psychological traits
• Boys are ever claimed psychologically stronger and steadier then girls and willing not to
express emotions publicly in front of others;
• The perception of the maximum Boys that they are comparatively respectable then girls;
• What are the boys do are considered more logical and the deeds of girls are considered as
the emotional one;
• In the school some girls are objectified as character defeat by their fellow classmates and
teachers in reaction of their vibrant presence or vivid willing to participate in the different
activities and occasions;
• Boys think the girls are not able for acquiring enough physical and psychological capabilities
like the boys for contributing in the family and society;
• Boys think they are only capable contributing in the public life and girls have physical
constraints in this regard;
• Conservativeness of the girls is seen closely resemblance of their character purity at school
by their teachers and fellow classmates;
• Boys are treated as asset for the community by the teachers and girls as burden, even
teachers express their indecent opinion regarding it;
c. Masculine Behavior and practice at schools
Masculinities at schools are express through the following behavior and practices-
• Boys frequently use abusive words during the chatting with their fellow students for
expressing manliness;

• Some boys engage in violence with the other boys and girls, sometimes they exploit the
socio-economical and political influence of their respective families;
• Some boys engage in violence outside of the school and carry out the arrogant gesture into
the classroom for creating panic among the other boys and girls;
• Some politically motivated boys using political influences in school for practicing power over
the others;
• Some boys are given the scopes and space in the school for developing authority over the
other students including girls;
• Class captains are being elected respectively among the boys and girls considering their
merit, physical structure and family background as well;
• Class captains practice power over the other students which render by their teachers;
• Boys write down culturally considered different offensive statements about the girls on the
classroom benches and walls;
• Some male teachers could not disregard their subject position in delivering their opinions
about the women and girls at the classroom;
• Some teachers and School Management Committee members render their intention for
keeping the girls restricted and timid under the norms of patriarchal construction and
existing power relation in school;
• In the classroom some teachers look after the boys with the extra preference than the girls
and therefore girls are almost bound choosing Home Economics instead agriculture as
optional subject;
• Notion of honor takes a huge toll over the girls by restricting them from the different
developing process both physically and psychologically;
• Boys express aggressive sexuality features in the school and outside of the schools towards
the fellow girls;
• The dress code of students allows the boys to be accustomed with the formal dress code of
men of the public spare, moreover they are allowed to wear Jeans which is considered as
manly likeliness on the other hand girls are highly motivated for wearing Hijab for well-
covering of her own body parts;
• School punish the students, using corporal punishment as well as psychological penalty and
exercise unnecessary authority over the students, therefore teaches make difference in
giving punishment to the boys and girls considering the perceived inferior physical structure
of girls and social perception.

Chapter-4
Construction of masculinities in schools
In Bangladesh, after complete the primary school, students have to admit into the junior secondary
level for keeping continuity of their study and stretching it up to the secondary, higher secondary,
graduation level and so on. Considering about the local context at the Southern Bangladesh, primary
level students get comparatively better environment regardless of their gender identity, which
indicates they enjoy more freedom in movement, making friendly relationship among each other
within the boundary of the school, though sometimes girls are advised doing differently by their
parents. This situation therefore does not persist long, usually society allows the younger children
more freedom and impose gradual tighten restrictions over them and in this regard school plays very
significant role through its rules, regulation, practice etc.
4.1 Patriarchal perception of the students at the beginning of their schooling
This perception has been exposed during the open discussion with the students and all of them are
studying at the junior secondary level. In that discussion maximum students have expressed their
fondness to the popular patriarchal perception and practices manifesting through perceived norms,
values and stereotype thinking. Though both boys and girls expressed their preference to those
traditional practices but differences among them has come up at one stage. The differences are
mainly seen in the attitude of them, most of the girls accept the traditional norms and values but
they are also remained positive changing over it slowly. During the discussion girls were providing
several instances in this regard of some successful women who are contributing a lot in the
community and state level. Here the connotation is that the girls want to break the tradition but
currently they are not in a position to face off the all-out challenges might be received by the
counterparts. On the other hand boys support that patriarchal popular practice blindly, and during
the discussion they expressed direct reactive opinions over any changes which empower the girls
and women more, at the same time boys blame the women for the breaking the tradition in the
name of empowerment in the recent past. This situation proves that students of that stage are
heavily gendered by their construction and in this construction patriarchal norms have already
influenced them significantly.
This perception further exposed when maximum students regardless of boys and girls expressed
about their perceived role-models, what they want to follow in future, have been set by having
influenced from one or more local and national male figures though over the period a change has
come in this regard now girls are not dire to dream contributing like men in the community, society
and state.
4.2 Still girls are preferred participating in the reproductive role even at school
At this stage whatever aims set by the girls they never even think about their future without
performing reproductive roles in future and married life. On which they are also being motivated at
school by the respective stake holders, sometimes in the classroom teachers glorifies the
reproductive roles of women and motivate them to follow it. In this regard the teachers frequently
recall the popular quotation “Give me an educated mother I will give you an educated nation”, this is
not given to motivate the girls for contributing in the mainstreaming development process rather
motivate them in performing the productive responsibilities. Actually the children have been

oriented for the first time at the home about the expected roles they need to be performed in family
and society with considering their sexual identity, where girls are taught for performing in the
domestic arena and boys are taught performing in the outer area, in the men’s world through the
daily life practice. This perception also guides the parents for investing resources behind the children
for their education purpose and the economic calculation settle on both in the present and future
terms (Johnson 1993: 197). Due to this cultural concern boys are more favorable for availing
education than the girls.
One thing significant shared by the girls now a day parents prefer to let them be concentrated at
study at home rather expecting their help in performing in the household activities but sometimes
they are allowed to help voluntarily to their mother at the same time boys’ access in the kitchen is
strictly restricted. Though nowadays girls are prefer to concentrate in study but they are always
given threat by their parents and relatives if they cannot meet the expectation in study or breach
any social norms during attending in school then they will be forced to get early marriage. It is also
evident at the schools which I have visited during this study, out of these at Class Seven of one
school four girls have forced into getting early marriage during last one year period, the scenario is
more or less same with the other classes and schools. The fellow classmates claimed that the school
did not take any intervention for preventing those marriages though in some cases the school was
informed about it.
In performing gendered roles girls are not only allowed in home but they are also encouraged even
in school. During my visit at a school I have seen some students of Class Six
holding brooms and they are suppose to sweep their classroom for making it
clean and they got that direction to do so from a concerned authority of the
school. Due to this tradition of girls’ involvement in the reproductive roles, it
has been seen that school-age girls are nearly always at home in out-of-school
time; in this regard Parker (1997, 507) mentioned that “it is expected that
they will help with housework. Though the types of work that they do-
childcare, domestic maintenance, devotional handicraft and cooking-girls
learn their function of service. It is also clear that they learn a serious work
ethic such that women feel guilty if they are idle. Boys seem nearly always to be away from home.
Younger boys roam the village, fishing, hunting, playing games, having adventures in all-boy bands”.
Not only that, in school girls are always given responsibility cleaning the school play ground before
arranging the annual sports competition, each year and on the day of occasion they are engaged in
serving the snacks and drinking water to the guests and athletes as well. On the other hand boys are
given the responsibility of setting the stage, maintaining the discipline in and around the field. The
distributed responsibility towards the boys and girls are different in nature but in compliance with
the gendered thinking of the society fostering by the school authority. The distributed role towards
the girls denies them thinking independently beyond the received role in society rather portrait a
picture of women of care giver on the other hand boys as manager and protector.
4.3 Masculinities are constructed through extra curriculum practice
In a one mid rainy season I was visiting to a school and suppose to be companied with two local
folks, in the morning when I reached at the school, the rain was pouring down heavily and I had to
take shelter at the veranda of that school and waiting for my companions. Before the class started
the students were roaming and chatting among each other, they all were boys. Girls were seen
staying at the other building concentrated in a corner. The students did not know my intention

coming to school though at that time I was very much eager to hear the content of their discussion.
At last so far I could understand that boys of a particular class arguing among themselves about the
pros and cons of the upcoming football match set to be staged on the upcoming Thursday. In that
arguments a fellow student was playing such a role as a manager of a football team usually do.
Among the students some of them verbally using abusing words and tried to express some kind of
manliness gesture through it. Here one thing need to be shared, in the recent-past concerned
authority of Bangladesh government issued a circular for arranging extra curriculum activities and
sports at schools in every week. In compliance with this instruction the boys were instructed by their
teachers for arranging football matches between different classes during the dedicated timeslot and
for that reason the boys were discussing about that match, later on I got introduced with the boys to
whom I met first, I could learn, they were the boys of Class Seven and they were set to face off in a
football match with the boys of Class Eight. Here school compiling with the government order letting
the girls left out from the process though in the policy papers government mentioned about the
importance of extra curriculum practice in school for multiple development the students regardless
of their sexual identity. Actually this is the process of creating greater access for boys in school and
teachers give them greater opportunity to expand ideas as well as reinforce boys more for general
responses than they do for girls (Marshall, 1997) and this tendency is transcend to other practices
and process of school as well.
Parker (1997) worked on the Balinese children on construction of gendered behavior. He described
“The process by which Balinese children become gendered is not adequately explained by sex-role
socialization theory. Socialization theory assumes an asocial individual who becomes socialized into
a pre-ordained end-product or goal-state. This assumption makes it difficult to perceive and explain
individual and gender variation, innovation and social change. Powerful agency is assigned to the
goal-state (the characteristics of gender). The actual process by which the characteristics of gender
are transferred is neglected. The relation between the person or institution carrying out the
socialization and the person being socialized are generally ignored” (Parker1997: 499).
Though boys are favored in the extra curriculum practice however as reflection of the reality that
schools are not fully motivated to run extracurricular activities at regular basis. Though the recently
formulated Education Policy (2010) has given importance on operating extracurricular activities for
uphill the quality of education as well as minimizes the existing gender gap in it. It has also given
importance in education to minimize the gender gaps in the society as well. Since schools are not
supposed to be prepared and skilled in this regard, extracurricular activities are not being arranged
at regular basis or school does not consider the above mentioned focus during arranging extra
curriculum activities. So chances of participation in the different kind of activities in school still
remain very limited for girls. Though the boys have some options in this regard arranged by their
own initiatives and it is also very limited.
4.4 Construction of masculinities and femininities in centering of arranging annul sports
In each year school arranges annual cultural and sports competition at the school premises. For
managing this occasion properly, school constitutes some sub-committees and in most of the cases
boys are selected as members of the Sports Committee and girls of the Cultural Committee. Though
in schools, girls outnumbered the boys in overall enrollment situation, in many cases they have very
limited representations, sometimes it’s very symbolic. In the sports events girls’ access are also very
limited and they are not allowed participating in some mainstreaming sports’ events especially in the
track and field therefore some unusual and stereotype events are being arranged only for girls these

This kind of open play group is cultural considered as improper for
girls’ participation in track and field events.
are called Chair Sitting,
Pillow Passing, stringing
needles etc. Thus in the
rural Bangladesh schools
make the annual sports’
competition gendered and
letting the boys make sense
that they are meant for
achieving perceived
physical capabilities.
4.5 Formation of Scots and Girl Guide group
Beside making difference in the annual sports some volunteers’ groups are usually formed for doing
voluntary work in schools and outside of the schools’. In our visited schools’ students informed that,
schools constitutes the Scout group (Girl Guide are not formed yet) but it has very limited activity
and girls do not have available access into it. On this occasion some girls shared a experience of last
year, during that time some of them was enlisted in the Scout group and they were suppose to
participate in a outdoor progrmme to volunteer at the Sub-district (Upazila) level but at the last
moment their names were removed. So they lost that chance participating in that group though
among the boys of their classes, whose names were enlisted, participated at there. Parker (1997,
504) in the Balinese context termed the school as ‘male’ institution. He described “there are many
ways in which schools in Bali can be seen as ‘male’ institutions: for instance, the always –male
principals, the frequency of military-style parading and the emphasis on uniform. Also, in Brassika,
male teachers heavily outnumbered female teachers”. Parkers remarks truly reflects in the male and
female ratio among the teachers; among the two visited schools one has only 1 female teacher and
another has 3 female teachers out of 15 each. In this regard Sanjay Srivastava mentioned “historic
division of social life as ‘public’ and ‘private’ has simultaneously entailed a division of institutions as
public and private. And, along with this, there has developed a logic of the gender of such
institutions. According to this logic, public institutions are the ‘natural’ preserve of men. Therefore,
they are particularly the site of a variety of masculinist ideology. Women are denied equal
opportunities from the notion that what women can do and what women are capable” (Srivastava
2011:1).
4.6 Different subject considering the sexual identity of the students
Not only in the extracurricular practice or participating in the other activities, schools treat
differently towards girls even in subject selection. The Hightower (2003, 471) showed gap among the
girls and boys in the enrollment in Math and Science but in the present context in the class Six,
Seven and Eight in Bangladesh where Science, Arts and Commerce divide yet to be started but
school splits up the students considering their sexual identity for choosing the subject among
Agriculture or Home Economics. As per the formulated National Education Policy in 2010, no girl is
likely to be forced for taking course of “Home Economics” but in the both visited schools’ practice is
that all girls are almost bound choosing “Home Economics” instead of “Agriculture”. On the other
hand with regard to the boys, no one met who has chosen “Home Economics” instead of
“Agriculture”. Interesting is that in the Home Economics classes girls are supposed to learn about the
different kinds of reproductive roles i.e. sewing, cloth washing, family nutrition etc. on the other
hand boys are learning about the effective means of agriculture considering them as a future

‘breadwinner’. ‘Bread winner’ concept which is thought to be an important attribute of being
masculine and it ensures their ‘authority’ on their counterpart, and failure to do so means a greater
chance of losing their image as ‘man’.
4.7 Boys are given responsibility looking after the girls in school
The construction of masculine traits among the boys in schools also exposed through another
instance during our staying at school. We were sitting at the Head Master’s room it was almost noon
hour, two boys came and submitted an application for seeking early vacant of the classes for on that
day, in the submission, they claimed students specially girls got wet in the rain during coming at
school and they were supposed to feeling awful for participating in the further classes, so that day’s
vacant time should be appeared ahead. On that occasion the boys were advocating with the head
master on behalf of the girls and they finally succeed. By their lobby the school was vacated after
four periods instead of eights. Working experience with the school over the years it has been seen
that when any kind of situation arises in school some quarters of the teachers render the
responsibility to the certain boys usually who are aggressive in nature for dealing with the head
master. On the other hand through this instance school echoed with the tradition thinking of
guardianship bestowed upon to the men and particularly this incidence gave the boys clear message
that they have some responsibilities to look after the girls even at the schools. This also infer the
senses to the both boys and girls, that “girls are not worthy of respect and that appropriate behavior
for boys includes exerting power over girls—or over other weaker boys” (Bailey, 1992).
4.8 The notion of honor and girls are concentrated in restricted a common room
Earlier we were describing how the boys are acquiring leadership skill through negotiating among
each other in dealing of a football match at school. When the boys were dealing and bargaining on
this purpose at the same time the girls were seen concentrated and restricted at another building.
Thing is that the girls’ common room (where the girls usually stay) situated on the other side of the
school right after the teachers’ room. Teachers call the girls for participating in the classes following
to them to the classrooms. The perceived significance of this establishment is that teachers are
protecting the girls from the boys’ intrusion. Here the notion of honor works behind it; teachers
want to retain the honor of school through applying different kind of restrictions over the girls. In
Bangladeshi community women and girls are being considered as symbol of honor of men and men’s
leading community. Any kind of breach of the perceived social norms and values with regards to the
girls and women is being considered a major violation. In order to protect that honor, the popular
perception is that girls should abide by their family and society strictly and remained restricted from
the others, no freedom is allowed to them. That’s why girls are refrained from free movement,
freely talk with the boys at school and same as girls, boys also are not allowed to roam in front at the
girls’ common room as well due to the perceived enactment of boys’ sexuality. This situation keeps
the girls confined and out of the mainstreaming learning process (curricular and extra-curricular) at
school, this cause also a severe blow on their development process which include lack of
information, lack of skill to handle the untoward situations and most importantly lack of skill for
developing networks with others.
On the other words it can be said that “Izzat is the term for which “honour” is the usual translation.
It is a word often heard in men’s talk, particularly when the talk is about conflict, rivalry, struggle . It
crops up as a kind of final explanation for motivation, whether for acts of aggression or beneficence.
Like any term of strong resonance, it is used in various overlapping meanings and with many

nuances. But it always refers to how a person carries out the group’s values, how he or she realizes
them in an actual behavior. A family’s izzat must be preserved at all costs, increased whenever
possible. And “if the honour of a family’s women is lost, so also is the family’s public position”
(Mandlebaum, 1986 ). This overall situation sharply divides the students into two sects of boys and
girls, makes the sense among the students that they are different in biology and there should be
different approach in grooming with the society, this also cost a huge toll in defining the gender
relation among the students which causes mutual misunderstanding, disrespect and misconception.
During this study it has been seen that school remains very cautious to following this division and
takes necessary actions whatever it causes towards the students. The girls are the most victimized of
it and the impacts over the girls of it not only creates barriers upon their development but also
during this time girls start to rethink about their status, personal freedom and rights in schools as
well as in the society. Finally due to huge pressure by the family and community as well as by the
school (teachers and School Management committee members) girls try to cope with the persisting
situations and acquire the necessary traits in accordance with social norms and values of femininity.
4.9 Masculine practice in the girls’ common room
On the other hand the situation in the girls’ common room is quite treble; the room is too small to
accommodate all the girls of all classes. Maximum time girls have to be stay standing in utter
gathering until teacher calls them for participating in the next classes. This situation takes the toll
heavily over the girls specially the girls of the junior classes (Six, Seven and Eight) including bad
impact over their reproductive health situations and girls of the senior classes exploit their seniority
in relation with the sitting arrangements, using of indoor sports’ materials and maintaining
discipline. In this regard some senior girls also practice power and try to impose many things over
the juniors as per their choice. So at times it turns into conflicting situation among them and schools
do not recognize this seriously, moreover these incidents are seen as trifling issues, in this regard the
perception of some teachers is that these are happening for the typical nature of girls and women,
who are not able to accommodate others from their selfishness or not social enough etc.
4.10 Boys are allowed stretching up their arena in school
In a research on schools Sadker (1994) pointed out that girls concern are not taken seriously at
school and boys are far more likely to receive praise or remediation from a teacher than were girls.
As the Sadker described boys in the southern schools of Bangladesh are being praised on different
purposes and they are given spaces for arranging different kind of activities like sports, cultural
programme as well as sometimes teachers advise them to stretch up their territory at school
whatever class they belong. Often teachers create new scopes only for boys and instigate them for
availing it. Through this process some boys start to rebuild of their social status at school and at
some point they become dominant factor among all the students. Here one thing needs to consider
that through which process boys become honorable, respectable and dominant at school, if a girl
wants follow that same process then she has to face off the questions of losing honor of the school,
society and of the particular family. Chapman (2007) showed in a study how girls become socialized
towards socially perceived feminine ideas by their teachers. Chapman also told that in school girls
are praised for being neat, quiet and calm at the same time boys are encouraged to think
independently, be active and speak up (Chapman, 2007).

4.11 Girls’ free movement is seen as character defeat
Those girls want to break the social boundary she is been looked upon as character defect and blame
as bad girls. Different kind of gossips created around them. Usually at schools in the Southern
Bangladesh as Chapman (2007) mentioned those girls restrain themselves within the boundary, not
to speak with boys even with their teaches, moves calmly and restrictedly are considered as good
girl and in school girls are always advised by their teachers for becoming so-called good girls.
On the other hand among the boys those who take part in the sports, arguing with the teachers,
pinching others including the girls are called brave and they are affectionately allowed carrying out
this practice. It has been seen in school among the boys those who are calm, quite and try to avoid
any kind of gathering normally dubbed as unusual (cowered) and they are strongly discouraged for
this. Reay’s (2001) study demonstrated about how socialization of girls occurs at the schools by
tolerating deviant behavior from boys. Reay said “though assertive behavior from girls is often seen
as disruptive and may be viewed more negatively by adults, whilst boys’ misbehavior is viewed as
desire to assert themselves”.
4.12 Election of class captain creates hierarchical power relation among the students
In the classroom there is a tradition of electing class captains, teachers usually take different kinds of
help from them and sometimes they are also called as monitor. In each class usually 2 class captains
are being elected from the students through direct selection by the teachers or voting exercising by
the students. Among the 2 captains one elected from the boys another from the girls and they
individually represent the respective groups. The responsibilities of the class captains are assisting
the class teachers in the classroom including managing the home-work documents of the students
and maintaining discipline in the classroom when the teacher does not present in it. Teachers render
some power to the class captains and sometimes the class captains use this power and instigate
teachers for taking punitive actions to the accused (by their judgments) students. Through the
discussion with the students it has been experienced that students those who are influential in the
class room for different reason i.e. body structure, social position and merit are the ultimate choice
as class captains. Through achieving this post they consolidate the power over the other students
and from that point a certain kind of power relation creates among the class captains and the other
students. Sometimes this kind of power relation defies the notion of students’ solidarity of
understanding each other’s feeling and needs. Since girls generally stay separately in the girls’
common room and teachers call them to join in the classes the captain elected from the girls
comparatively considered as less prominence and in this regard some kind of subordination is also
created to the boys’ captain. This is due to that the boys’ captain stays in the class room always and
only he has been given the responsibilities to look after the classroom during the off periods and
intervals, this additional responsibility empower the boys’ captain more and let them feel more
ownership over the classroom. This ownership also infuses to the other boys and they tend to
exploit this over the girls and otherwise.
4.13 Boys are affectionately treated by glorifying their male-body identity
In the classroom and outside of the classroom few terms like ‘PURUSH’ (man), ‘BETA’ (son) are
affectionately used by the teachers to call the boys, these terms are the synonyms with the male-
body identity and used for giving inspiration to the boys in different occasions. This is already
mentioned in the previous discussions that at the earlier stage at school girls enjoy comparatively
more freedom than the later phase. During our visits in the two schools we have been experienced

that girls of the Class Six are more jovial and open compare to the class Seven and Eight and upper
classes, here the assumption is that repeated restrictions over the girls in the years around makes
them timid and introvert. It is also experienced not only the male teachers put restriction over the
girls, female teachers (though they are very few) also instigate the girls to follow the traditional
norms and values. The opposite picture we have seen with regard to the boys and they become
more empowered by the classes they have passed. Bailey showed that how boys are taunted for
throwing like a girl, or crying like a girl, which implies that being a girl is worse than being a boy.
4.14 Male-body is consider as valuable and female-body as burden
Masculinity reports a growing concern among men in improving their physical appearance (Glassner,
1995; Jeffords, 1989; Klein, 1993, 1993). The muscular body serves as a privileged body-indicating
the people (both men and women) who closely resemble cultural standards of beauty receive
advantages and opportunities not readily open to others (Mishkind et al., 1987). For example,
teachers treat attractive children more favorable and perceive them more intelligent than the
others. Attractive children receive more attention from their peers and are viewed as more popular
than unattractive children (Wienke, 1998). In the Bangladeshi context at the classroom and school
premises male-body is considered as valuable as society bestowed upon them on the other hand
female body is considered as burden. Girls are often pinched by their fellow classmates for their
comparatively dark-shaded body appearance. Culturally dark-shaded body appearances of the girls
are considered as negligible to the eyes of male driven society, this attitude is also carried into the
school by their fellow classmates and teachers. Sometimes teachers speak up about the fairness
concern of some particular girls and linking it with the future uncertainty of their marriage. The
traditional myth is that fair skinned girls are more likely to get a good marriage (so-called) with a
well-off groom on the other hand parents of the dark-shaded girls have to pay huge dowry to the
groom and his family.
4.15 Violence is a regular feature in the classroom and out-sides of the class room
Violence is a regular incident occurring in schools even in the junior classes (up to class -VIII). Some
boys engage with violence very often and show arrogant gesture even in the classroom enough for
creating panic among the other students mostly among the weaker boys and girls. Sometimes some
defiant boys stretch the out-of-school incidents inside the school and classroom as well, during that
time they continue to expressing that deviant behavior and trying to expose their toughness in front
of other students. During this study out of the working schools, at one both boys and girls are
temporarily participating in the class in the same classroom for last few months due to the shortage
of adequate number of teachers (due to their other involvement), here usual practice is arrange
separate classes for girls and boys in different class rooms. After that accumulation due to the
arrogant behavior of some boys different types of conflicts have already been exposed. As per the
comments by the girls in the classroom boys want to rule over them and often try to expose their
physical power in different way by exploiting the socially subordinate position of girls.
4.16 Family influence is being used by the students for behaving violently
There is an accusation against some boys that, in the school they use the influences of their
influential family and the reality is that to some extend school endorse it. Usually at local level these
families have some kind of mascular-identity for creating anarchic and unruly circumstances. As per
the comments of some students most of the students (boys and girls) remain fearful to them. The

act of these boys could be considered as serious kind of expression of masculinity which exposed by
different aggressive behaviors from verbal abuse to expression of physical power. About the
expression of masculinity Radhika Chopra focused on the ‘gesture’ of the boys towards other
gender. She said gesture is an inversion of the power relation that exists through molestation,
between genders and within group however, the gesture is a way of establishing each boy as being
the same as other. The gesture crafts a different sense of body, a body experienced as sexualized but
also mocking the possible attainment of that sexuality and therefore incomplete (Chopra, Dasgupta
& Mandeep k. 2000: 1607-1609).
4.17 Inappropriate role of teachers in addressing violence in school
The role of the teachers and management committee members appear mysterious to stop the
masculine practice by the students, often it has been seen that concern authority of the school tend
to overlook it and if they step in, their moral support finally goes in favor to the mascular boys.
Moreover sometimes the ultimate victim has to face different kind of punitive actions. When we
were visiting at the 2nd
school a story has opened up in front of us. For the last few months a girl of
Class Seven was continuously being teased and harassed by a fellow classmate and his cohorts. As
consequence when she lost her patience and caught in brawling with that particular boy, it created a
huge uproar in the school as well as its adjacent areas. During the discussion with the boys and girls
on that particular issue we got different version of statements. Girls said she had been harassing for
last few months and she had no alternative without protesting it. On the other hand boys mostly
told about the dare of that girl involving in brawling with a boy. They said that is totally unacceptable
of doing such thing by a girl. During the discussion the boys were very frank expressing their opinion
in favor of the male-body (class) identity though all of them are not holding the same position in the
hierarchical structure at their class. Though it was hinted from the different corner that the boy is a
kind of muscular figure, in absence of class-teacher in the classroom he frequently uses abusive
words to the others, other boys of the class are also fearful of him. The incidents jolted the whole
school and the teachers again blamed that girl and took punitive actions against her.
4.18 Girls are victimized of stalking and sexual harassment in school
Stalking in schools at the southern Bangladesh is still consistently persisting and all of the cases of
stalking, girls are the most victimized of it. In some cases girls of the junior classes have to suffer
double blow since boys of the same class as well as senior classes participating in the act of stalking
towards them. It is also evident that girls have to face stalking in classroom, outside of the classroom
as well as on the way to school. With regard to the boys, they involve in stalking out of the notion of
heroism about which they become familiar from the different recreational media i.e. drama, cinema
etc. Through the stalking some boys want express their manliness towards girls as well as the
subordinate boys. The visible evidences of stalking are quite frequent at school. Not only many girls
opened up about it therefore it is also evident on the classroom benches as well as on the walls of
the schools. Different kind of abusive words are written on it and most of the cases the content of
that writings links a girl in a relationship status with a particular boy which is culturally strictly
forbidden for her.

At schools girls are not only facing stalking but they are also being harassed sexually as well, at
different cases girls are violated by their class teachers and some news also been published on the
different national newspapers in this regard. In the recent past it happened at a primary school in an
area where we went for collecting information from a secondary school for this study purpose. 5
This incident was also published on the different national newspapers; as per the news published
that 3 girls of Class Four were being sexually
harassed by a cruel class teacher.6
Here it is need to mention that as per the law of
Bangladesh stalking is a serious punishable
offence. In the year of 2010 country’s apex court
delivered a verdict, according to it the school has
been given the responsibility for protecting
sexual harassment of the students at school and
its adjacent areas, in addition to that in the
verdict high court terms stalking towards girls as
sexual harassment and asked to consider these
types of incidents as punishable offence. As per the directives given every school is supposed to
form a committee and will open up a complain box. Directives empower the committee to
investigate all the complains and file law suit against the perpetrators. Though the judgment has
come through by one year, those schools I have visited during this study did not find the committee
is formed and complain box is in place. So at present as an institution school is not active to address
sexual harassment issues in and around it and students of schools most of them are girls are facing
sexual harassment by their teachers, fellow class mates and outsiders in school and outside of the
school. When schools behave like this it damages the morals of the girls on one hand at the same
time it gives the boys scopes expressing their aggressive sexuality.
This kind of
news exposes the intensity of incidences of
sexual harassment from primary to secondary
level though the popular version even among the
different stakeholders of schools is that girls are
facing sexual harassment from their own fault
and instigation, freely movement of the girls
provokes the boys in this regard, in the classroom
both male and female teachers echo with this
version of explanation and pushed the
responsibility over the girls for everything.
4.19 Corporal and psychological punishment and the mindset of the teachers
Recently in Bangladesh the government has issued a circular for banning any kind of corporal
punishments at school. But still teachers continue punishing the students, in school some teachers
create humiliating environment at the class room and out-side of the classroom. These teachers
often use unsophisticated behavior and practice excessive authority over the students especially
5
The name of the school is Choto Harji Povernment Primary School, under Mirukhali Union. For this study we have taken a
secondary school of that Union called Mirukhali Secondary School.
6
The news was published on a prominent Bengali national news paper namely Kaler Kantho on 16 September 2011.
Source: The Daily Star, 5 September 2011

over the juniors. This punishment culture attributes a lot in school for developing masculine and
feminine traits among the boys and girls. For punishing the students teachers use different kind of
punishment methods and interesting is that in this regard teachers distinct among boys and girls.
Usually teachers use comparatively tougher punishment methods for boys and softer for girls. The
logic behind this differentiation is the traditional thinking of patriarchy and masculinity; a boy is
comparatively stronger than girls to face the tougher punishments or tougher punishment will make
the boys stronger (physically and mentally) to face off the social challenges ahead to come.
Therefore it was also assumed that the issue of honor of the guardians and community is also linked
to the girls’ softer punishment. After facing off the tougher punishment some boys express swollen
with pride in front of the other students for their ability to absorb the punishment to that extent.
Moreover during the punishment boys usually remain conscious not to groan loudly, if they, then
they will be pinched with their male identity by the fellow students and teachers, on which sense
girls are exhausted regularly by the boys and teachers.
4.20 Dress code helps to constitute socially perceived male and female identity
In the school students have to follow particular dress code as decided. Having followed it, boys have
to wear western fitted shirt and pant on the other hand girls have to wear South Asian traditional
loose fitted Salwar Kameez. During my visit at the both two schools I have seen few students
wearing Jeans and all of them were boys. In the school girls are not allow wearing shirt and pant at
all. Religious factors heavily influences a lot in defining the girls’ uniform, if a girl is Muslim then she
is suppose to carry a extra piece of cloth for using as Hijab (head cover) and most of the cases she is
being pressurized by the teachers to cover up her head and other body parts. In the school those
Muslim girls do not use Hijab and remain reluctant in this regard they are strongly criticized and
blamed as spoiled girl and they are pinched by some teachers by claiming that they are not true
Muslim rather their doing go with the resemblance what the Hindu does.
By following the patriarchal structure, the formal and informal sectors of Bangladesh are mostly
male driven though in the urban areas women have some scope to participate in it but in the rural
the supremacy of the male identity is almost absolute. Among the males those who have come in
the formal sectors whether production or service usually dressing up like the Westerns do and
wearing Shirt, Pant, Coat, Tie etc. Schools even at the rural areas decide about the boys’ uniform
thinking them to be accustomed with Western dress up considering that this may help them
participating in formal sector in future. Here need to mention that dress code for the students in
Bangladesh usually starts from the very beginning of the schooling though it differs from urban to
rural areas, in the rural areas it usually starts from the secondary level while in the urban area
usually from the primary level.
4.21 Classroom always for boys and masculinity concentrated in the classroom teaching
In the rural Bangladesh schools are facilitating most of the learning activities concentrating at the
classroom. Parker said “in the classroom Boys are more active than girls in presenting their
knowledge and their need to be taught; they are less constrained than girls in demanding to know.
Girls learn, by the lack of attention paid to them by teachers, their subordinate position relative to
boys” (Parker1997: 508). It is need to be mentioned that most of the rural schools in the southern
Bangladesh, boys of the different classes generally stay always at their own classroom. Teachers on
different subjects go there at the particular time-period to deliver the lessons. When a teacher
comes at the classroom girls follow him/ her to join in the class. At the classroom girls and boys are

This brochure published by
a private school and it has
assured the guardians for
separate sitting arrangement
for boys and girls.
sited at the different sided benches. Chapman said “the Socialization of gender within our schools
assures that girls are made aware that they are unequal to boys. Every
time students are seated up by gender, teachers are affirming that girls
and boys should be treated differently” (Chapman, 2007).
Quality of education in schools is a vital concern in Bangladesh,
government already acknowledged this concern in the recently
formulated Sixth Five-year Plan (2011). In the classroom, learning focus
sometimes concentrates on some particular students, not only in the
classroom but it also carries on to the outside-classroom activities.
Social, economical and political influences of some local guardians over
the teachers infuse this undue focus. Most of the cases the focused
students are the boys and they get more privilege in the classroom
learning process, in a research, Parker (1997) already mentioned about
it. In addition to that in the classroom different types of comments by
some teachers could be considered very derogatory to a section of
students and only due to that some students become demoralized
coming in school. The comments typically belong with the socio-economical status, physical
appearances, expected gender division of labor and competency level of the students. In some
cases teachers could not be raised themselves above their subject position of being a man or their
social status. Sometimes few teachers speak lavishly out about the traditional lifestyle of women in
the present rural socio-cultural context of Bangladesh, this kind of remarks contains huge negative
connotation over the skill and contribution of the women generally makes in the family, society and
community, as a result it makes the girls very unhappy instantly in the classroom and creates a
chance for boys to mock at them. Baily in a research paper published by American Association of
University Women in 1992 indicated that females receive less attention from teachers and the
attention that female students do receive is often more negative than attention received by boys
(Baily, 1992). Sometimes the comments of the teachers tend to mean that girls are usually coming to
schools intending only for a better marriage with a well-off groom. When I shared views with some
of the teachers in this regard I could understand that they do not only talk like such but they also
mean it seriously, they said, it is practical in our social context.
4.22 Role of teachers and management committee members for boosting up conservative
norms
In developing power relation among the different components at schools SMC (School Management
Committee) contributes a lot. As per the government rule of Bangladesh the committee is
responsible for providing guidance to the local level school management. Committee members are
elected from the guardians and representatives from the teachers and they are the ultimate
deciding factors in making decisions at the local context. Thing is that those who elected as the
member at SMC are mostly political influenced and motivated as well. Practically they are playing a
big role for socialization of the students as per the patriarchal
norms and values in the current local political context.
In this regard their perception is rightly reflected
in the research conducted by Lynette Parker
(1997, 507) on Bali, Parker mentioned “Through
teacher’s behavior, school curricula and

institutional routines, the government assign the genders the following goals: girls have
responsibility for virtue, moral education and service, principally within the family, and boys are
responsible for economic development”. Parker also exposed the various aspects of the school
curricula as well- books and their illustration, class-room instruction, etc.-clearly express ‘gendered
social roles’ (1997: 504). Chapman (2007) also observed that gender bias is also taught implicitly
through the resources chosen for classroom use. Using texts that omit contributions of women , that
tokenize the experiences of women, or that stereotype gender roles, further compounds gender bias
in school’ curriculum.
In the context of southern Bangladesh both teachers and SMC members are playing signification role
to socialize the children in school considering them as boys or girls. Here need to mention that
among the teachers few are very conservative, most of the cases they are the Religion Teachers and
in school they are very active for retaining the traditional norms and values. These teachers turned
as huge powerful by teaming up with SMC committee members who are socially and politically
influential. Finally they come up with the different kind of formal or informal restrictions mandatory
over the students to be followed and most significantly the restrictions are not the same for both
boys and girls rather they are quite different in line with the expected gendered relations in the
family and society. In addition to that considering the girls as an object of honor to be protected at
any means and whatever the restrictions and rules in this regard all are meant to start practicing
power over them. Not only students are the victimized of it, some teachers are also victimized as
well, they also feel cornered and do not want to open up in fear of huge social and political pressure
over them. The situation sets a standard in school of practicing power to follow at every where and
it also carries down beyond to the arena of school. When the students get admission into school
immediately they fall into this kind of power relation trap and they learn this by their teachers as
well as senior students.
4.23 Practice of private tuition put the girls in inferior position
About the situation of education in Bangladesh UNICEF observed that despite achieved progress in
the enrollment in schools in Bangladesh still there are discrimination in some areas which are
ensuring quality in education, accruing acceptable competency level, relevant life skill and equal
roles for women and girls in the society. UNICEF has also commented on that gender discrimination
in Bangladesh starts from the birth of a girl and continues through the life. The perceived lesser
value and limited roles of girls and women are embedded in the socio-economic system.7
Since
quality is a concern in the education system many experts put focus on the effectiveness of the
curriculum, teaching methods as well as on the teachers. About the teachers the popular perception
is that teachers are more willing in private tuition rather delivering proper lesson in the classroom.
This perception is more or less true in the current context. During our visit at the schools it was seen
that some teachers were involving in private tuition classes using school’s classrooms either before
or after of the school time. I have mentioned earlier that for the last few years girls’ education has
got a momentum specially in enrollment and statistics shows that in the secondary level among
students 51.78 are girls and 48.2 boys.8
7
Source:
In the class room girls are also doing well but when the
question comes participating in the private tuitions classes for achieving good result and compete
with others, here girls are less competent to the boys. In the rural Bangladesh parents do not willing
http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/education_463.htm, October, 2011
8
Source: Bangladesh Educational Statistics, 2009- published by BANBEIS

spending any additional money for their girl children. The consequence over the girls is pretty
considerable; girls become gradually less competitive by the promoting in the upper classes. At this
point Sadker (1994) truly pointed out that “In fact, upon entering school, girls perform equal to or
better than boys on nearly every measure of achievement, but by they graduated high school or
college, they have fallen behind”. Thus the overall situation uplifts the boys on one hand on the
other let the girls fall down to degrade. According to this situation boys could realize about their
privileged position in the social context and girls start to rethink about their real social status and
importance.
4.24 Impact of technology in construction of male aggressive sexuality
The contemporary technology is a big threat in growing masculinities and sexuality among the
students in schools. Now in Bangladesh cheap multimedia mobile handset are easily achievable even
for a low income people. Sometimes students are provided mobile phones by their parents for the
safety concern. Achieving multimedia Phone Set is not the main concern for growing masculinities in
school but problem is in using of the technology. Here I want to raise the concern of misusing this
technology. It has been experienced in school that even some students of the different classes are
misusing this technology and some others become victimized of it. During our discussion with a boy
of class eight, who was frequently raising questions about the movement of girls of his school’s, he
was very critical about it. When I asked to him why he is too critical towards the girls. What he said
that was horrible. He said, he has collected and preserved few photographs of a junior girl in his
Mobile Phone Set which had taken at another occasion. The girl is studying in class Seven and she is
also among the rare girls in school who is well introduced in her class as well as in school for her
vibrant presence. When again I asked him about the motive behind this sort of collection, he
responded very calmly that his personal interest worked beyond it. In an another reply he said, he is
not going to disseminate these photographs to his other fellow students but if required he would do
it, here he was indicating of blackmailing her if necessary in future.
The situation is that, last few years pornography has spread a lot through the multimedia mobile
phone even among the students. The problem is that the students do not have the enough
information and education to deal with these kind of sexually explicit contents, schools also do not
have any preparation to handle this new challenges, moreover it want to hide this challenges out of
their cultural rigidity , teachers think any openness from their side will just deepen the crisis. On that
occasion I was discussing with some teachers by taking reference of High Court verdict (2010) about
the prevention of sexual harassment of the girls at school. They suggest us not to speaking up the
word “sexual harassment” with the students of class Six and Seven rather use “eve teasing”, here
problem arises with the term ‘sex’ which should not be spoken openly, they think. That is the
situation at schools by which students (boys and girls) have to face off with the available sexually
explicit contents on the contrary they do not have any education on sexuality issues. Sometimes
some ill-motivated boys spread this type of contents to the other boys and provoked by these
contents the boys engage themselves in different kind of aggressive sexual behavior in schools which
include multiple types of sexual harassment towards girls.

4.25 Girls Dropout
Due to the above mentioned situations
the ultimate result is dropout of the
girls from the school. The chart below
is showing very interesting picture
about the boys and girls ratio in
different classes of a school under this
research9
. As per the chart in the class
Six girls enrollment is higher in number
but in the next class boys suppress the
girls by a very little margin but the gap
become prominent in the class eight.
This pictures show how girls are dropped out from each class consistently in the same time the ratio
of the boys rise persistently class after class. Statistics shows that 86.02 percent of girls had been
dropped out in 2001 and the rate come down to 77.5 percent in 2006 from the secondary
education.10
9
The information is taken from the school namely Mirukhali Secondary Schoo, Mathbaria, Pirojpur district.
10
Source: Report on vital registration system, 2007, BBS cited in Gender Statistics of Bangladesh 2008,
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.
In the year of 2011 the situation is developed a bit but it is long way to go.
Boys and Girls ratio among the Students
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Class-Six Class-Seven Class-Eight
Girls
Boys
Linear (Boys)

Chapter-5
Recommendations
The following recommendations can be consider to address the construction of masculinities at
schools.
1. Create equal opportunities for all boys and girls in the all sorts of actives including curricular
and extracurricular practice i.e. subject selection, participating in sports, volunteering groups
etc;
2. Create awareness among the general students with regard to patriarchy, its norms, values
and objectives as well as consequence;
3. Authoritative attitude of the teachers over the students should be stopped up;
4. Need to provide counseling support to those mascular boys who engage in violence in
school;
5. Need to raise awareness among the students about the power relations and ill effects of
power practice;
6. Need to raise awareness among the general students about the importance of building
mutual respect regardless of class, cast and sexual identity;
7. Need to create openness in the school and students should be informed about the sexuality
issues;
8. School should be treated equally to all of the students regardless of their class, cast and
sexual identity;
9. Political influence should be given up in running the schools management;
10. Gender sensitivity of the teachers should be raised up due to refrain them from passing
negative comments towards the girls and women in and out of the class;
11. The curriculum and extra-curriculum of the school should be reviewed from the
masculinistic lens;
12. Need to create a congenial environment to the both girls and boys for sharing mutual
understanding and perception;
13. An environment need to be created in school for respecting on the potentiality of all human
being contributing in the community and society;
14. Awareness need to raise among the teachers for giving up the body preferences among the
students from the idealistic cultural point of view;
15. School should immediately shun the practice of corporal and mental punishment ;
16. Any difference should not be created among the students in engaging in any kind of activity
regarding their sexual identity.

References
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Multicultural Pavilion Web Site
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Annexure- A: key questions
Traits with regard to masculinity and femininity which are supposed to growing among the
students will be identified.
− Perceived behavior style of boys and girls.
− Behavior pattern to each other: Boys and girls, boys and boys, boys and
teachers, girls and teachers.
− Idea of good boy and bad boy.
− Idea of good girl and bad girl.
− Notion of heroism and notion of femininity.
− Notion of honor.
− Notion of violence.
− Perceived role of men and women (productive, reproductive, community
leadership and community management, recreational and sports)
− Perceived body image of boys and girls.
− Perceived dress code of boys and girls.
− Participation of boys and girls in the curricular and extra curricular activities.
− Perceived attainable qualities of boys and girls
− Perceived notion of creating demand of girls and boys.
− Perceived notion of general violence, gender based violence
− Perceived notion of parenting (motherhood and fatherhood)
− Icons and idols setting.
− Class and cast issue.
− Norms, rules and regulation of the institutions to facilitate the stakeholders
(Boys, girls)
Role of the Teachers, Management and Support staffs which influencing in formation of the
masculinity will be revealed.
− Role to facilitate curriculum and extra curriculum practice.
− Role in guiding the students at the classroom and out side the classroom (girls
and boys)
− Role in defining classroom rules.
− Role to reproduce social norms and values.
How this learnt roles manifesting discrimination towards girls would be examined.
− How the girls are facing discrimination in the class room and extracurricular
practice and other else
− Who are the behind in this discrimination
− How it costs.

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